Wednesday, 28 December 2011

NETWORK CONFIGURATION

                                           NETWORK CONFIGURATION
Networking scripts refer to logical interface names:
Ethernet
Dial-up
Loopback
:
:
:
eth0, eth1 …
ppp0, ppp1 …
lo
Driver selection:
 All drivers for network interface cards are built as modules
 /etc/modprobe.conf maps logical names to specific module name
Ex: alias eth0 r8179
 Network interface modules are loaded at boot time if networking has been enabled
    The appropriate module is loaded based on a alias line in /etc/modprobe.conf
 To view the module aliases
          grep ‘alias eth’ /etc/modprobe.conf
          ifconfig eth0 -View interface configuration
          netconfig - text based network configuration tool, only write config files,
          system-config-network - graphical tool to configure ipaddr

Use ifup and ifdown to activate the changes
    ifup eth0 -Enable eth0 interface
    ifdown eth0 -Disable eth0 interface
    mii-tool - This utility checks or sets the status of a network interface’s Media Independent
    Interface (MII) unit. Most fast ethernet adapters use an MII to auto negotiate link speed and
duplex setting
   ethtool - Display or change ethernet card settings
   kudzu - detects and configures new and/or changed hardware on a system
  Kudzu detects and configures new and/or changed hardware on a system.
  When started, kudzu detects the current hardware, and checks it against a database stored in
      /etc/sysconfig/hwconf, if one exists.
  It then determines if any hardware has been added or removed from the system.
     If so, it gives the users the opportunity to configure any added hardware, and unconfigure any
     removed hardware. It then updates the database in /etc/sysconfig/hwconf.
They do not activate device or changes
ethtool eth0

DEVICE CONFIGURATION IS STORED IN TEXT FILES
/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-ethX

NETWORK CONFIGURATION IS STORED IN
/etc/sysconfig/network

CONFIGURING SECOND IPADDR OF THE SYSTEM:
netconfig --device eth1

BINDING MULTIPLE IP ADDRESSES:
For a small number of IP's, create ifcfg file for a virtual interface
ifcfg-ethX:XXX
For a large number of IP's create an ifcfg range file
ifcfg-ethX-rangeX
vim /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0-range0

IPADDR_START=192.168.1.1
IPADDR_END=192.168.1.255
CLONENUM_START=0
At the maximum of 256 IP address may be configured in a single NIC
Ex: Many websites running on a same server, this is used to identify different websites

DHCP/BOOTP:
dhclient - manages to configure ip address through dhcp/bootp

DEFAULT ROUTE:
Default gateway of the system

STATIC ROUTES:
It can be configured in two ways
ip route add 192.168.22.0/24 via 10.53.0.100
service network restart
ip route
Mount permanently using the following
vim /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/route-ethX

IP/CIDR via GATEWAY
Ex: 192.168.22.0/24 via 10.53.0.100
Adds a static route to the 192.168.22.* network through 10.53.0.100 router
service network restart
If we have more than one interfaces use the following.
vim /etc/sysconfig/networking/devices/ethX.route
ADDRESS0=192.168.3.0
NETMASK0=255.255.255.0
GATEWAY0=192.168.0.100
For the second static route uses ADDRESS1/NETMASK1/GATEWAY1, and so on.

DISPLAY STATIC ROUTES WITH:
route
route -n
netstat
connections, and multicast memberships
netstat -r
ip route
- show / manipulate the IP routing table
-
Print
network connections, routing tables, interface statistics, masquerade,

CHANGING HOSTNAME:
Hostname is set initially by /etc/rc.sysinit at the boot time
If we want to change the Hostname:
Then change the hostname in the following file
hostname=stationX.example.com (temporary entry)
vim /etc/sysconfig/network
service network restart
Changes will be activated at the logout

LOCAL DATABASE OF HOSTNAME TO IP ADDRESS MAPPINGS (OR) LOCAL RESOLVER
vim /etc/hosts
192.168.0.X
stationX.example.com
stationX

DNS RESOLVER:
vim /etc/resolv.conf
search example.com cracker.org
nameserver 192.168.0.254
nameserver 192.168.1.254

DNS UTILITIES:
nslookup
nslookup
dig
dig -x
 By default looks at both the nameserver and search lines in /etc/resolv.conf
host
host -l
 By default looks only at the nameserver line in /etc/resolv.conf

NETWORK DIAGNOSTICS:
ping - Network packet loss and latency measurement tool
Ex:
The default behavior of ping is to send 64-byte ICMP packet to the specified host every
second until you cancel the operation with a Ctrl-c. When ping operation is cancelled or done, ping
will report summary statistics such as aversge packet loss, number of packets sent/received, etc.
These statistics can allow us to measure the quality of the network between hosts.
traceroute, mtr
Displays network path to a destination
ping 192.168.0.254
Ping –c 4 192.168.0.254

ADVANCE FILESYSTEM MANAGEMENT

ADVANCE FILESYSTEM MANAGEMENT
RAID:
SOFTWARE RAID:
Multiple disks grouped together into "arrays" to provide better performance, redundancy or
both.
mdadm - provides the administration interface to software RAID.
Many "RAID Levels" supported, including RAID O, 1 and 5.
RAID devices are named, /dev/md0, /dev/md1, /dev/md2, /dev/md3 and so on.
RAID 0 or STRIPPING:
Two or more disks used to create a single large high performance volume. Performance is
better if drives of equal size are used. No redundancy, so chance of failure is very high,.
Array size equals the sum of all disks in array.
RAID0 is simply data striped over several disks. This gives a performance advantage,as it is
possible to read parts of a file in parallel. However not only is there no data protection, it is
actually less reliable than a single disk, as all the data is lost if a single disk in the array stripe
fails.
RAID 1 or MIRRORING:
Two disks containing the same data updated simultaneously. redundancy offers good
protection against disk failure. Can slow write performance but tends to improve read
performance. Only RAID type that you can place the /boot partition on. Hot spare disks can
be used to improve fault-tolerance. Array size equals the size of the smallest disk used.
RAID1 is data mirroring. Two copies of the data are held on two physical disks, and the data
is always identical. RAID1 has a performance advantage, as reads can come from either disk,
and is simple to implement. However, it is expensive, as twice as manydisks are needed to
store the data.
RAID 5:
Three or more disks with zero or more hot spares. A good balance between performance and
reliability. Redundancy is achieved by splitting parity between all disks, one disk can be lost
without causing array failure. Both read and write speeds are usually improved, but in certain
cases write performance is dramatically decreased. For this reason RAID 5 is often not a
good choice to host databases.
RAID5 data is written in blocks onto data disks, and parity is generated and rotated around
the data disks. Good general performance, and reasonably cheap to implement. Used
extensively for general data.
If data on a RAID5 disk is updated, then all the old data from the RAID stripe has to be read
back from the disks, then new parity calculated before the new data, and new parity can be
written out. This means that a RAID5 write operation requires 4 IOs. The performance impact
is usually masked by a large subsystem cache.
PARITY:
Parity is a means of adding extra data, so that if one of the bits of data is deleted,
it can be recreated from the parity
The advantage of parity is that it is possible to recover data from errors.
The disadvantage is that more storage space is required.
SOFTWARE RAID CONFIGURATION:
RAID1:
create 2 new partitions using the ID as `fd'
fdisk /dev/sda
p  n  +300M 
:wq
partprobe | sync
t
 partition no  l
 fd
TO START THE RAID
mdadm -C /dev/md0 --level=1 --raid-devices=2 /dev/sda{x,y} or/dev/sdax /dev/sday
or
mdadm -C /dev/md0 -l 1 -n 2 /dev/sda{x,y} or/dev/sdax /dev/sday
The raid should be started first and then only the partition should be formatted
mkfs.ext3 /dev/md0
mount /dev/md0 /mnt
vim /etc/fstab
/dev/md0
mount -a
mount
cd /mnt
touch a b c d
TO VIEW THE RAID STATUS
cat /proc/mdstat
/mnt ext3
defaults 0 0
TO STOP RAID
umount /dev/md0
mdadm --manage /dev/md0 --stop
TESTING AND RECOVERY
mount /dev/sdax /mnt ; mount /dev/sday /opt
ls /mnt ; ls /opt
TO FAIL A PARTICULAR HARDDISK
RAID must be started before failding a device
mdadm -C /dev/md0 --level=1 --raid-devices=2 /dev/sda{x,y} or/dev/sdax /dev/sday
mdadm --manage /dev/md0 -f /dev/sdax/y
or
mdadm --fail /dev/md0 /dev/sdax/y
TO REMOVE THE FAILED DEVICE
mdadm --manage /dev/md0 -r /dev/sdax/y
or
mdadm --remove /dev/md0 /dev/sdax/y
TO ADD A NEW DEVICE
mdadm --manage -a /dev/sdax/y
or
mdadm -a /dev/md0 /dev/sdax/y
cat /proc/mdstat
LOGICAL VOLUME MANAGEMENT

LVM is a tool for logical volume management which includes allocating disks, striping,
mirroring and resizing logical volumes.

The physical volumes are combined into logical volumes, with the exception of the /boot/
partition.

The /boot partition cannot be on a logical volume group because the boot loader cannot read
it.

If the root (/) partition is on a logical volume, create a separate /boot/ partition which is not a
part of a volume group.
LOGICAL VOLUME CONFIGURATION:
Create 2 new partitions using the ID as '8e'
fdisk /dev/sda
p
n
:wq
partprobe | sync
fdisk -l
pvcreate /dev/sdaX
pvdisplay
vgcreate /dev/sdaX
vgdisplay
lvcreate -L 300M -n
lvdisplay
mkfs.ext3 /dev//
vim /etc/fstab
/dev//lvname> /home
mount -a
mount
 +1000M  t

partition no  l
 8e
ext3
defaults
0 0
Store some data on the mount point
TO INCREASE THE LOGICAL VOLUME SIZE WITH OUT DATA LOSS
lvextend -L +700M /dev//lvname>
lvdisplay
lvdisplay show that the has the space of 1000 Mb, but df -h shows that,
df -h
To format the extended LV and added to the existing LV.
resize2fs
df -h
/dev//lvname>
TO ADD ANOTHER PARTITION TO THE EXISTING LOGICAL VOLUME:
create a new partition with the ID as '8e'
pvcreate /dev/sdaY
pvdisplay
vgextend /dev/sdaY
vgdisplay
Now the new partition is also added to the existing volume group.
TO REDUCE LVM
Now reduce the filesystem by 100MB. This example assumes that the original size was 440MB
umount /home
fsck –f /dev//lvname>
resize2fs /dev//lvname> 440M
lvreduce -L 100M /dev//lvname>
mount -a
df -h
USER QUOTA WITH LVM PARTITION:
Remount the above partition with usrquota option
Temporary:
mount /dev//lvname> -o rw,remount,usrquota
/home
Permanent:
umount /home
vim /etc/fstab
/dev//lvname> /home ext3 defaults,usrquota
:wq
mount -a
mount
Now the Above partition is ready to allocate userquota
useradd test
passwd test
00
quotacheck -cu /home
repquota /home
quotaon /home
BLOCK LIMIT: To set soft limit = 5120 kb (5Mb)
setquota 5120 10240 0 0 -u test /home
edquota -u test
==> to create the quota file
==> to display the quota file
hard limit
= 10240 kb (10Mb)
or
5120 10240
0
0
Note: Add the size of used blocks with the soft and hard limit given.
To check the above condition
su - test
quota
dd if=/dev/zero
dd if=/dev/zero
dd if=/dev/zero
of=newfile
of=newfile
of=newfile
To set soft limit = 50
bs=100k count=45  should succeed
bs=100k count=70  should succeed with warning
bs=100k count=150 should fail to write the whole file
hard limit = 70
FILE LIMIT:
setquota 0 0 50 70 -u test /home
or
edquota -u test
0
0
50
70
Note: Add the size of used blocks with the soft and hard limit given
To check the above condition
su - test
quota
Create 49 files successfully, 50th file should be created with warning. 80th file should not be created,
it should be failed.
Note: if any condition did not work properly you have to off the quota and the edit as need.
quotaoff /home
quotaon /home
LVM SNAPSHOTS:
Note: Don't try this with /home, try to use another mount point.
create an LVM partition and mount that in /snapshot
store some data in the mount point
ls /snapshot
lvcreate -L 16M -p r -s -n backups
lvdisplay
mkdir /mybackup
mount /dev//backups /mybackup/backups
mkdir /dump
dump -0u -f /dump/datadump
umount /mybackup/backups
lvremove /dev//backups
umount /snapshot
mkfs.ext3 /dev//lvname>
mount -a
ls /snapshot
Now the Directory contains no data
cd /snapshot
restore -rf /dump/datadump
ls
Now the data is restored in the mount point.
/dev//
/mybackup/backups
TO REMOVE LOGICAL VOLUMES:
umount /home
vim /etc/fstab
Remove the entries regarding to the LVM
lvremove /dev//lvname>
lvdisplay
vgremove
vgdisplay
pvremove /dev/sdaX
pvdisplay
Finally remove the partition using fdisk.

FILESYSTEM MANAGEMENT

FILESYSTEM MANAGEMENT
Total maximum number of partitions supported by the kernel:
63 for IDE drives
15 for SCSI drives
PARTITION THE HARDDISK:
Quotas are enabled at the file system
Easy to backup and recovery
Separate partition improve performance of the system
The operating system can be upgraded or reinstalled with out
Having to restore the data from elsewhere.
CREATING A NEW PARTITION:
list known partition types
Creating an new partition type n
To change the partition Type (ID)
fdisk -l (or) sfdisk -l
fdisk /dev/sda
:m
d delete a partition
l
m print this menu
n add a new partition
p print the partition table
q quit without saving changes
t change a partition's system id
w write table to disk and exit
:n
firstcylinder size: < Default value>
last cylinder size: +M
Command (m for help): t
Partition number (1-12): 12
Hex code (type L to list codes):
:w
partprobe - inform the OS of partition table changes
sync - flush file system buffers
Formatting the file system
mkfs.ext3 /dev/sdaX
or
mke2fs -j /dev/sdaX
X is the partition number
Mount filesystem temporary
mount /dev/sdaX
Mount filesystem permanently
vi /etc/fstab
:wq
mount -a  Mount the filesystem just created and check for errors
mount
/dev/sdaX
/dir
ext3
defaults
00
TO REMOVE A PARTITION:
step 1: Remove entries in /etc/fstab
step 2: umount the file system
step 3: fdisk /dev/sda
umount /dev/sdX or < mount point>
:d
number of partition:X
:w
MOUNT and UMOUNT
Mount:
mount [-t fstype] [option] device mount_point
-t filesystem type
-o options
Ex: mount -t ext3 -o rw,acl /home
mount -o remount,rw /dev/sda6
Umount:
umount [options] device | mount_point
Ex: umount /dev/sda5 (or) /opt
MOUNT POINTS and /etc/fstab

/etc/fstab is referred each time the system boots to create the desired filesystem hierarchy.

During the system initialization, /etc/fstab is used to create the filesystem hierarchy.

It consists of six fields per line for each filesystem.
Syntax:
device
Ex:
Label=/new /new
device
mount_point  The path used to access the filesystem
FS_type
options
dump_freq
mount_point
FS_type
ext3
options
defaults
dump_freq
0
 The special device file name, or filesystem label of the device to mount
fsck_order
 The filesystem type
 A comma-seperated list of options
 Level 0 dump frequency:
0=never dump,
1=daily,
2=every other day.

0=ignore,
1=first (the root filesystem should have this value)
2-9=second, third, etc..

Filesystems that have the same number greater than 1 are checked in parallel

Network filesystems and CD-ROMs should be ignored.
mount -a  Used to mount all the filesystems listed in /etc/fstab
E2LABEL
e2label – Change or View the label on an ext2/ext3 filesystem
To view the label
To change or create label
For a partition:
e2label /dev/sdaX
For all the partitions:
blkid
e2label /dev/sdaX
MOUNTING NFS RESOURCES

To check which directory is exported
showmount -e

Mount the shared directory to your local file system temporary
Syntax:
mount :
Ex:
mount server1.example.com:/var/ftp/pub /mnt

Mount the shared directory to your local file system permanently
Enter the following in /etc/fstab
Ex:
192.168.0.254:/var/ftp/pub
/opt
nfs
defaults
0
MOUNTING SMB RESOURCES
From Linux
smbclient //192.168.0.x/sharename -U Admin
mount -t cifs //192.168.0.x/sharename /opt -o username=john
From Directories shared in Windows
mount -t cifs //192.168.0.x/sharename /opt -o username=Administrator
CREATING A SWAP PARTITION:
create a partition with partition id 82
partprobe | sync
mkswap /dev/sdaX
swapon /dev/sdaX
cat /proc/swaps
or
swapon -s
 to format swap partition
 to enable swap
 to view swap status
To enable swap permanently
vim /etc/fstab
/dev/sdaX
swap
swap
defaults
00
CREATING A SWAP FILE:
dd if=/dev/zero of=/swapfile bs=1024k count=X
where X is the count that is depends on the size of RAM used. Usually 1.5 to 2 times of RAM size is
allocated to swap partition.
To enable swap permanently
vim /etc/fstab
/swapfile
swap
swap
defaults
00
FILE SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
tune2fs - adjust tunable file system parameters on ext2/ext3 file systems
- it is used to convert the ext2 file system to ext3 with out data loss
dumpe2fs - dump ext2/ext3 file system information
dumpe2fs /dev/sdaX
==> displays file system info

USER ADMINISTRATION

USER ADMINISTRATION
Creating users and providing password:
useradd
adduser
passwd
Accounts may be added in a batch with newusers
vim userlist
usr1:redhat:512:512::/home/usr1:/bin/bash
usr2:redhat:513:513::/home/usr2:/bin/bash
usr3:redhat:514:514::/home/usr3:/bin/bash
usr4:redhat:515:515::/home/usr4:/bin/bash
usr5:redhat:516:516::/home/usr5:/bin/bash
usr6:redhat:517:517::/home/usr6:/bin/bash
usr7:redhat:518:518::/home/usr7:/bin/bash
usr8:redhat:519:519::/home/usr8:/bin/bash
usr9:redhat:520:520::/home/usr9:/bin/bash
To create users
newusers
newusers userlist
Note: only drawback of using this method is that the user’s home directories do not get populated with
the files from /etc/skel. so copy the hidden files from /etc/skel to user's home directory.
cp –rf /etc/skel/.* /home/usr1
useradd command populate entries in three files,
/etc/passwd
/etc/shadow
/etc/group
When user accounts are created, a private group is also created with the same name, users are
assigned to this private group
Entries in /etc/passwd
one:x:501:501::/home/one:/bin/bash
user name of the account
An x in the password field. Passwords are stored in the /etc/shadow file or else will contain
the user's encrypted password.
Numeric user id. This is assigned by the useradd script
A common convention is to number them sequentially starting from 500.
Accounts with a UID under 100 are generally system accounts.
root user always having the UID 0
Numeric group id. Red Hat uses group is in a fairly unique manner for enhanced file security.
Usually the group id will match the user id.
Comment field. User details such as name, contact number, address.......
User’s home directory. Usually /home/username (eg. /home/one). All user’s personal files,
web pages, mail forwarding, etc. will be stored here.
User’s shell account. Often set to /bin/bash to provide access to the bash shell
Entries in /etc/shadow
one:$1$vDPEOJMj$OG6VnnJrYS75z.fxadMCA/:13805:0:99999:7:::
As with the passwd file, each field in the shadow file is also separated with colon,characters,
and are as follows:
Username. Case-sensitive, usually all lowercase. A direct match to the username in the
/etc/passwd file.
Password, encrypted. A blank entry (eg. ::) indicates a password is not required to login, and
an entry (eg. :*:) indicates the account has been disabled.
The number of days (since January 1, 1970) since the password was last changed.
The number of days before password may be changed (0 indicates it may be changed at any
time)
The number of days after which password must be changed (99999 indicates user can keep
his or her password unchanged for many, many years)
The number of days to warn user of an expiring password (7 for a full week)
The number of days after password expires that account is disabled
The number of days since January 1, 1970 that an account has been disabled
A reserved field for possible future use
Entries in /etc/group
class:x:541:stud4,stud3,stud2,stud1
Name of the group
group password, or an 'x' when using shadow passwords
unique group ID
comma-seperated list of group members
GROUP ADMINISTRATION:
ADD A GROUP
groupadd
DELETE A GROUP
groupdel
CHANGE A GROUP NAME
groupmod -n
CHANGE THE FILE'S GROUP OWNERSHIP:
chgrp
CHANGE THE FILE'S OWNERSHIP:
chown
Note: if we change the group name, then automatically the members are also added to that newgroup
ALLOCATE USER TO GROUP
ADDING USERS DIRECTLY TO A GROUP
useradd -G
useradd -G class stud2
ADDING AN EXISTING USER TO A GROUP
usermod -G
usermod -G class stud1
gpasswd [-a user]
DELETING USER FROM A GROUP
gpasswd [-d user]
USER ID ANG GROUP ID
root user
system user accounts
users
In order to avoid using GID within the range typically assigned users and their private groups, use -r
groupadd -r
groupadd -r class1
The above command will create an entry in /etc/group like this
class1:x:101:std2,std1
Note: The group ID's are allocated from 101
MODIFYING USER ACCOUNTS:
usermod [options] username
options:
-d
-e
-g
-G
-l
-s
-u
-p
-L
-U
DELETING USERS ACCOUNTS:
userdel
userdel -r
(or)
Manually remove the user from /etc/passwd, /etc/shadow, /etc/group, /var/spool/mail
PASSWORD AGING POLICIES:
By default, passwords do not expire
Forcing passwords to expire is part of a strong security policy
Modify default expiration settings in /etc/login.defs
0
 1-100
 starting from 500
change the home directory
set the date on which the account will expire and be disabled
change the initial login group
change group name
change login name
change the login shell
change login ID
change the string in the password field
Lock the password.
Unlock the password
deletes user from system
deletes user and the home directory of the user
To modify password aging for existing users, use the chage command
chage [options] username
Options:
-d, --lastday
-E, --expiredate EXPIRE_DATE set account expiration date to EXPIRE_DATE
-I, --inactive
-l, --list
-m, --mindays
LAST_DAY
set last password change to LAST_DAY
INACTIVE
MIN_DAYS
-M, --maxdays
-W, --warndays WARN_DAYS
-h, --help
MAX_DAYS
set password inactive after expiration to INACTIVE
show account aging information
set minimum number of days before password
change to MIN_DAYS
set maximim number of days before password
change to MAX_DAYS
set expiration warning days to WARN_DAYS
display this help message and exit
LOGIN SHELL SCRIPTS:
/etc/profile
~/.bash_profile
/etc/profile.d/*.sh
~/.bashrc
/etc/bashrc
/etc/profile is executed every time a user logs in to the system. It will set environment
variables for the user such as HISTSIZE and MAIL. This is the first script executed at login.
The user's ~/.bash_profile scripts runs next,
which typically calls ~/.bashrc and /etc/bashrc.
The /etc/profile contains system-wide environment settings; whatever is added or
removed here affects all users.
/etc/profile.d contains initialization scripts specific to software packages installed by RPM.
These scripts are called by /etc/profile.d on login, or by /etc/bashrc if called by a non-
interactive shell.
~/.bash_profile is executed once at login time. It is usually used to set environment
variables and to start programs at login, as opposed to every time you open a terminal
window.
NON LOGIN SHELL SCRIPTS:
~/.bashrc
/etc/bashrc
/etc/profile.d/*.sh
~/. bashrc allows users to customize their own aliases and functions without the
intervention of the administrator.
it runs whenever a user
~/.bash_profile also calls it whenever the user logs
The /etc/bashrc script is used for system-wide functions and aliases.
It alllows a system-administrator to set aliases for every user, like “c” for “clear” or “h” for
“history”. This script is usually called by a user's ~/.bashrc file.
SWITCHING ACCOUNTS:
su - [user]
su - [user] -c command
Allows the user to temporarily another user
Default user is root
The '-' option makes the new shell a login shell
SUDO:
Users listed in /etc/sudoers execute commands with:
an effective user id of 0
group id of root's group
sudo acess is controlled by /etc/sudoers.


This file should be edited with 'visudo'
TO GIVE PERMISSION TO USE A COMMAND FOR A SET OF USERS
visudo
User_Alias USERS = test, test1
Cmnd_Alias COMMAND = /sbin/fdisk
USERS ALL=COMMAND
Now the above list of users can use the commands in the list.
su - test
sbin/fdisk -l
sudo /sbin/fdisk -l now it is working
starts up a non-login interactive shell, and the default user
 not working
TO GIVE FULL PERMISSION LIKE ROOT
visudo
test1
The user test1 can run any command using sudo
sudo /sbin/fdisk -l
ALL=(ALL)
ALL
FILE OWNERSHIP:
Every file has both user and group "ownership"
A newly created file will be owned by:

the user who creates it

the current primary group of that user

SGID directories may change this behavior

The chown command can be used by root to change ownership
Examples:
touch new new1
ls -l (or) ll
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 0 Oct 12 15:02 new
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 0 Oct 12 15:02 new1
File ownership can be changed as follows
chown stud1 new1
ll
-rw-r--r-- 1 stud1 root 0 Oct 12 15:02 new1
File ownership and group name can be changed as follows
chown stud2:class new
(or)
chown stud2.class new
ll
-rw-r--r-- 1 stud2 class 0 Oct 12 15:02 new
SUID / SGID EXECUTABLES

Normally processes started by a user run under the user and group security context of that
user

SUID and/or SGID bits set on an executable file cause it to run under the user and/or group
security context of the file's owner and/or group
Example: SUID
ll /sbin/fdisk
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 95572 Jan 11 2007 /sbin/fdisk
chmod 4755 /sbin/fdisk
(or)
chmod u+s /sbin/fdisk
-rwsr-xr-x 1 root root 95572 Jan 11 2007 /sbin/fdisk
login as any user and try to access fdisk command
STICKY BIT AND SGID:
groupadd mba
useradd -G mba st1
useradd -G mba st2
useradd -G mba st3
mkdir /work
chgrp mca /work
chmod 777 /work
chmod 770 /work
chmod 1770 /work
or
==> Creating working directory
==> Assigning working directory to group
==> Setting full permission to that directory
(any user can access the group directory)
==> Setting owner ang group only to access
==> Sticky Bit
( owner only having full permission to edit and delete files)
chmod o+t /work
chmod g+s /work
chmod 2770 /work
or
(group names are assigned in this mode (SGID) )
ACCESS CONTROL LISTS (ACL)
ACLs can be configured:

Per user

Per group

For users not in the user group for the file
Grant RWX access to files to multiple users or groups
mount -o remount,acl /home
getfacl file|directory
getfacl /home/newfile.txt
For example, to give read and write permissions to user jack, group class rw:
setfacl -m u:jack:rwx /home/newfile.txt
The above command would grant the user jack read, write and execute access to the file
/home/newfile.txt
To remove acl
setfacl –x u:jack /home/newfile.txt
On directories, default access control lists can be used. If we wanted all newly created content of a
directory to be readable and writable by the user student:
setfacl -m d:u:student:rw /home/share/project/
To set acl to a directory:
setfacl -m d:o:rx /share
The above command would grant the others to read and execute access to the directory /share
To remove all the permissions for a user, group, or others, use the -x option and do not specify any
permissions:
setfacl -x
setfacl -x u:new /mnt

For example, to remove all permissions from the user with UID 500:
setfacl -x u:500 /project/somefile
SELinux
There is an old UNIX saying that everything is a file. Traditional file access is controlled
by user, group, and permission settings. To SElinux, everything is an object and access is
controlled by security elements stored in the inode’s extend attribute fields. Collectively, the elements
are called the security context.
In Red Hat Enterprise Linux 4, SELinux was protecting 13 processes.
In the initial release of Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5, this count had increased to 88.
All files and processes have a security context
The context has several elements, depending on the security needs
user:role:type:sensitivity:category
user_u:object_r:tmp_t:s0:c0
user:
Indicates the type of user that is logged in to the system.
For root user the name will be displayed as root,
Processes have the valve system_u.
For other users user_u.
role :
Defines the purpose of the particular file, process, or use.
Files have the role of object_r
Process and Users get the role of system_r.
Type :
Used by Type Enforcement to specify the nature of the data in a file or a processes.
Rules within the policy say what process types can access which file types.
Sensitivity:
A security classification sometimes used by government agencies.
Category:
Similar to group, but can block root’s access to confidential data.
Not all systems will display s0:c0
To view the security context of a file, user the ls command’s –Z option:
ls –Z
Ex:
ls –lZ /root/anaconda-ks.cfg /var/log/messages
Generally, Files having Directory’s security context
ls –Zd /etc/ /etc/hosts
ls –Z /etc/shadow /etc/aliases
To determine the process is protected by SELinux.
ps –ZC syslogd,bash
SELinux Key Components - Policy
Strict
A system where everything is denied by default.
You must specify allow rules to grant privileges
SELinux designed to be a strict policy.
The policy rules only have allows, no denies.
Minimal privilege's for every daemon
separate user domains for programs like GPG,X, ssh, etc
Difficult to enforce in general purpose Operating system.
Targeted
System where everything is allowed. use deny rules.
Protects systems Doors and Windows
By default processes run in unconfined_t.
unconfined processes have the same access they would have without SELinux running.
Daemons with defined policy transition to locked down domains.
httpd started from unconfined_t transitions to httpd_t which has limited access.
Any process whose type is unconfined_t, is not yet restricted by SELinux.
To view the entire process stack, use either
ps –eZ
or
ps Zax
Note: A restricted process is sometimes called protected, though it is the data that is protected, not
the process.

SYSTEM SERVICES

SYSTEM SERVICES
NETWORK TIME PROTOCOL:
Workstation hardware clocks tend to drift over time without correction
Many application require accurate timing
Time synchronization makes system logs easier to analyze
NTP clients should use three time servers
Config tool: system-config-date
NTP is configured in /etc/ntp.conf
server 192.168.0.1
server 192.168.0.2
server clock.example.com
driftfile /var/lib/ntp/drift
ENABLE THE NETWORK TIME PROTOCOL
system-config-date
Enter the NTP server's name
service ntpd start/restart/reload
chkconfig ntpd on
SYSTEM LOGGING:
Log file examples:




CENTRALISED LOG HOST CONFIGURATION:
/var/log/dmesg: Kernel boot messages
/var/log/messages: Standard system error messages
/var/log/maillog: Mail system messages
/var/log/secure: Security, authentication, and xinetd messages
LOG SERVER:
vim /etc/sysconfig/syslog
SYSLOGD_OPTIONS="-r -m 0"
service syslog start/restart/reload
chkconfig syslog on
LOG CLIENT:
Append the entry in /etc/syslog.conf
authpriv.*
authpriv.*
/var/log/secure
@
(By this entry user authentication log messages are sending to the log server)
service syslog start/restart/reload
chkconfig syslog on
XORG SERVER CONFIGURATION
Configuration stored in /etc/X11/xorg.conf
Configuration settings can be changes as follows
system-config-display
setup  select x configuration
startx
service xfs start/restart/reload
chkconfig xfs on
Note: This is process gives better results in runlevel 3, by this option we can change system
resolution, colour depth, monitor type, video card...
VNC: VIRTUAL NETWORK COMPUTING
Allows to access or share a complete desktop over the network. Uses significantly less
bandwidth as pure remote X connections
VNC SERVER
Individual users can start a VNC server with the command: vncserver
Requires a VNC password which should not be identical to the system password
System -> Preferences -> Remote Desktop
Enable Allow users to view your Desktop and Ask for your confirmation
Note: By this users can view your Desktop with your confirmation
Servers can automatically be started via
/etc/init.d/vncserver start/restart/reload
(or)
service vncserver start/restart/reload
VNC CLIENT
Connects to a remote VNC server with vncviewer host:screen
vncviewer
(or)
Application  Accessories  VNC Viewer  ip
(or)
vncviewer
OpenSSH
Encrypted remote shell
Frequently used for remote system administration
Can copy files securely
Supports key based authentication
ssh root@station2.example.com
Generating Key Pairs
If you do not want to enter your password every time you use ssh, scp, or sftp to connect to a
remote machine, you can generate an authorization key pair.
Keys must be generated for each user.
To generate keys for a user, use the following steps as the user who wants to connect to
remote machines.
If you complete the steps as root, only root will be able to use the keys.
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5.1 uses SSH Protocol 2 and RSA keys by default.
Generating an RSA Key Pair for Version 2
To generate an RSA key pair to work with version 2 of the protocol, type the following
command at a shell prompt:
ssh-keygen -t rsa
Accept the default file location of ~/.ssh/id_rsa.
Enter a passphrase different from your account password and confirm it by entering it again.
Note: if you don’t want password just press Enter twice.
The public key is written to ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub. The private key is written to
~/.ssh/id_rsa. Never distribute your private key to anyone.
Change the permissions of the .ssh directory using the following command:
chmod 755 ~/.ssh
Copy the contents of ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub into the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys on the
machine to which you want to connect. If the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys exist, append
the contents of the file ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub to the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys on the
other machine.
scp –r .ssh/ id_rsa.pub @:.ssh/authorized_keys
Change the permissions of the authorized_keys file using the following command:
chmod 644 ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
Note: The above configuration should be done in both Systems.
Now you are able to ssh on the another system with out password (Empty password given), [or] with
password that you have given (own password given)
CRONTAB:
crontab -eu
crontab -lu
crontab -ru
FIELD
minute
hour
day of month
month
day of week
==> create/edit crontab
==> lists user crontab
==> removes crontab
ALLOWED VALUES
0-59
0-23
1-31
1-12
0-7 (0 or 7 is Sun,)
A field may be an asterisk (*), which always stands for first-last
Ex: Run at 2:15pm on the first of every month
crontab -eu
15 14 1 * *
service crond start/restart/reload
chkconfig crond on
echo "this is test" > /dev/tty1
THE ANACRON SYSTEM

Anacron runs cron jobs that did not run when the computer is down

Assumes computers are not up continually

Vital for laptops, desktops, workstations, and other systems that are not up continually

Useful for servers that need to be taken down temporarily
Configuration file: /etc/anacrontab
Field 1: If the job has not been run in this many days...
Field 2: wait this number of minutes after reboot and then run it
Field 3: job identifier
Field 4: the job to run
CUPS
Uses the Internet Printing Protocol (IPP)
Allows remote browsing of printer queues
CONFIGURATION FILES
/etc/cups/cupsd.conf
/etc/cups/printers.conf
CONFIGURATION TOOLS
system-config-printer
Web based on http://localhost:631/
Command line management of print queues with lpadmin
lp
lpr
lpq
lprm
cancel
lpstat
CONFIGURING PRINTER:
system-config-printer
Click the New button.
Click Forward
Change the name to printerX
Click Forward
Select Locally-connected as the queue type and highlight /dev/lp0
Click Forward
Select Generic manufacturer and choose Raw Print Queue
Click Forward
Click Finish
Click Yes when it asks if you want to print a test page, and click Yes when it asks if
it looks okay.
Close down system-config-printer. Verify that there is a job in the queue:
lpq
service cups start/restart/reload
chkconfig cups on
Printer X is ready and printing.
 to print a file
 submits files for printing.
 to view print queue
 to cancel jobs
 to cancel jobs
 displays status information about the current classes, jobs, and printers

WEBSERVER

WEBSERVER
PACKAGES NEEDED FOR CONFIGURATION
httpd
IF THE PACKAGES ARE NOT AVAILABLE INSTALL THROUGH YUM INSTALLER
yum install httpd
THE MAIN CONFIGURATION CAN BE EDITED AS FOLLOWS
vim /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf
shift+g==>

DocumentRoot /var/www/html
ServerName stationX.example.com

CREATING THE WEBPAGE
cd /var/www/html
echo " This is test page for web server" > index.html
DAEMON SERVICES SHOULD BE STARTED AND ENABLED AFTER REBOOT
service httpd start/restart/reload
chkconfig httpd on
NOTE: Before proceed to verification, confirm that your ip addr is resolved to Domain name or vice
versa.
VERIFICATION OF WEB SERVER
links
Enter the URL name as
stationX.example.com ========>to view webpage.
SECURING ACCESS TO YOUR WEBSITE
mkdir /var/www/virtual
vi /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf
shift+g==>
NameVirtualHost 192.168.0.X:80

DocumentRoot /var/www/virtual
ServerName wwwX.example.com


AllowOverride AuthConfig

CREATING THE WEBPAGE
cd /var/www/virtual
echo " This is test page for virtual web server" > index.html
CREATING THE SECURITY
cd /var/www/virtual
vim .htaccess
AuthName "virtual webpage"
AuthType Basic
AuthUserFile /var/www/virtual/pass
require valid-user
CREATING HTPASSWORD TO THE USER
htpasswd -c /var/www/virtual/pass
chmod 640 pass
DAEMON SERVICE RELOADED
service httpd reload
VERIFICATION OF WEB SERVER
links
Enter the URL name as
wwwX.example.com ========>to view webpage.
This is going to ask for username and password, If you are provide the username and password then
the website will be displayed

SAMBA SERVER

SAMBA SERVER
This server is used to share the directories and files to WINDOWS and LINUX
PACKAGES NEEDED: samba, samba-common, samba-client
Yum list samba*
IF THE RPM'S IS NOT AVAILABLE INSTALL THROUGH YUM
yum install samba*
START THE DAEMON SERVICES
service smb start
TO CHECK THE AVAILABLE SAMBA SHARES IN THE LOCAL SYSTEM
smbclient -L localhost -N
( you should get a response from the samba server, but no indication of available shares)
-L
a list should appear
To look at what services are available on a server. You use it as smbclient -L and
-N
is useful when accessing a service that does not require a password.
This parameter suppresses the normal password prompt from the client to the user. This
THE MAIL CONFIGURATION FILE CAN BE EDITED AS FOLLOWS
vi /etc/samba/smb.conf
[global]
workgroup = REDHAT
[pub]
comment = windows sharing
path = /var/ftp/pub
public = yes
writable = yes
[home]
comment = share of user home directories
path = /home
public = no
valid users = Admin
create mask = 0765
hosts allow = 192.168.0. (or) 172.24. (or) 10.
OPTIONS AVAILABLE ARE:
public
browseable ==> share is visible in browse lists
writable ==> resource is read and write enabled
printable ==> resource is a printer, not a disk
group
TO RESTART THE DAEMON SERVICES AND TO ENABLE AFTER REBOOT
service smb restart/reload
chkconfig smb on
TO CHECK THE AVAILABLE SAMBA SHARES IN THE LOCAL SYSTEM
smbclient -L localhost -N
==> share can be accessed by guest
==> all connections to the share use the specified GROUP as the primary group
TO CHECK THE SYNTAX OF THE CONFIGURATION FILE
testparm
CREATE THE USERS NEEDED TO CHECK
useradd Admin
passwd Admin
smbpasswd -a Admin
smbpasswd -e Admin
TO CHECK THE SHARE IS ACCESSIBLE FROM THE LOCAL OR NOT
smbclient //192.168.0.x/home -U Admin
mount -t cifs //192.168.0.x/home /opt -o username=Admin
=======> to create samba password
=======> to enable samba password

WEB PROXY

WEB PROXY
PACKAGES NEEDED FOR CONFIGURATION
squid
IF THE PACKAGES ARE NOT AVAILABLE INSTALL THROUGH YUM INSTALLER
yum install squid
THE MAIN CONFIGURATION CAN BE EDITED AS FOLLOWS
vim /etc/squid/squid.conf
http_port 3128
SEARCH FOR THE WORD /OUR_NETWORKS, THEN ENTER THE FOLLOWING LINES
acl example src 192.168.0.0/255.255.255.0
http_access allow example
You can now refer to this network as "example" elsewhere in the configuration file.
src means that the IP specified is the source Ip(s) for this acl
DAEMON SERVICES SHOULD BE STARTED AND ENABLED AFTER REBOOT
service squid start/restart/reload
chkconfig squid on
To set the proxy settings in Firefox, navigate to Edit->Preferences. In the General settings,
click on the Connection Settings... button. Click the Manual proxy configuration radio button.
Add localhost in the HTTP Proxy: box, and 3128 in the Port: box. Click OK to accept the
changes.
Try accessing a web page somewhere.

POP SERVER

POP SERVER
INSTALLING RELEVANT PACKAGES:
The POP Daemon is blunded with another daemon that provides similar functionality, the
IMAP daemon , anb both are found within the dovecot package.
INSTALL THE DOVECOT RPM USING YUM INSTALLER
yum -y install dovecot
EDIT THE /etc/dovecot.conf FILE AND ADD THE FOLLOWING LINE
vim /etc/dovecot.conf
protocols= pop3 pop3s
TO ENABLING THE SERVICES
service dovecot start/restart/reload
service cyrus-imapd start/restart/reload
CONFIRMING THE SERVICE:
echo " this is test mail" | mail -s "hello user" user
THEN CONNECT TO POP SERVER
telnet stationx.example.com 110
+OK Dovecot ready.
user user
+OK
pass 1
+OK Logged in.
stat
+OK 1 691
TOP 1 691
+OK
Return-Path: <root@station9.example.com>
X-Original-To: user@station9.example.com
Delivered-To: user@station9.example.com
Received: from station9.example.com (localhost.localdomain [127.0.0.1])
by station9.example.com (Postfix) with ESMTP id A5F35ABB9E
for <user@station9.example.com>; Fri, 7 Sep 2007 11:48:14 +0530 (IST)
Received: (from root@localhost)
by station9.example.com (8.13.8/8.13.8/Submit) id l876IE8j005986
for user; Fri, 7 Sep 2007 11:48:14 +0530
Date: Fri, 7 Sep 2007 11:48:14 +0530
From: root <root@station9.example.com>
Message-Id: <200709070618.l876IE8j005986@station9.example.com>
To: user@station9.example.com
Subject: hello user
this is test mail
Now we have properly installed POP server
USING A POP CLIENT
Most popular Mail User Agents today, such as mozilla, mutt, evolution, are POP aware, and
can be used as POP clients.
There is also a popular command-line POP client called "fetchmail". fetchmail is highly
configurable, can query multiple mailboxes, and can run in daemon mode, such that it could query a
user's mailbox every five minutes.
fetchmail delivers the mail pasing it off to the MTA an a localhost, usually "sendmail".
vi ~user/.fetchmailrc
poll stationX.example.com with protocol pop3:
user user there is user user here
password "redhat"
The passwords are stored in this file, fetchmail will refuse to run unless you make the file readable
only by owner
chmod 600 ~user/.fetchmailrc
chown user ~user/.fetchmailrc
Attempt to "pop" your mail as user.
echo " testing" | mail -s "hi" user
su - user
fetchmail -v
logout
Now fetchmail is able to fetch mails from other hosts.
RECEIVING MAIL USING POP3
STEP 1 : telnet 192.168.0.X 110
STEP 2 : user
STEP 3 : pass
STEP 4 : stat + ENTER
STEP 5 : top + ID
STEP 6 : "." + ENTER
STEP 7 : quit

NIS SERVER CONFIGURATION

NIS SERVER CONFIGURATION
INSTALL THE PACKAGES NEEDED USING YUM INSTALLER
yum -y install ypserv
yum -y install portmap
MODIFY THE CONFIGURATION FILE /etc/sysconfig/network As Follows
vim /etc/sysconfig/network
Add a line as follows
NISDOMAIN=RHCE
This will take effect the next time you reboot your machine.
RUN THE FOLLOWING COMMAND TO SET THE NISDOMAIN NAME
nisdomainname RHCE
START THE SERVICES NEEDED FOR CONFIGURATION AND CONFIGURE IT TO START ON
BOOT:
service portmap start/restart/reload
service ypserv start/restart/reload
chkconfig portmap on
chkconfig ypserv on
CREATE A REMOTE HOME DIRECTORY
mkdir /rhome
ADD USERS SUCH THAT THEIR HOME DIRECTORIES ARE IN /rhome
useradd -d /rhome/
PROVIDE PASSWD FOR THE USERS
passwd
EXPORT THE REMOTE HOME DIRECTORY
vi /etc/exports
/rhome *(rw,sync)
exportfs -r
service portmap restart
service nfs restart
chkconfig portmap on
chkconfig nfs on
exportfs -v
GENERARE THE NIS DATABASE BY RUNNING THE FOLLOWING COMMAND, AND WATCH IT'S
OUTPUT FOR ANY ERRORS MESSAGES.
/usr/lib/yp/ypinit -m
Press Ctrl+D
type "y" then press ENTER
START THE YPPASSWDD SERVICE TO UPDATE PASSWORDS, AND ENABLE AFTER THE
REBOOT
service yppasswdd start/restart/reload
chkconfig yppasswdd on
NIS CLIENT CONFIGURATION
INSTALL THE FOLLOWING PACKAGES USING YUM INSTALLER
yum install -y portmap
yum install -y ypbind
yum install -y yp-tools
yum install -y authconfig
yum install -y authconfig-gtk
CONFIGURATION:
system-config-authentication (graphical)
or
authconfig-tui (text)
ENABLE THE FOLLOWING
Enable NIS support
then Enter the following
NIS DOMAIN RHCE
NIS SERVER 192.168.0.X or Domainname
ypbind should now start up successfully
EDIT THE /etc/auto.master FILE
vim /etc/auto.master
/rhome/
/etc/auto.misc --timeout=60
This line specifies that /etc/auto.misc defines mount points in /rhome/ managed by
the automounter. When not in use for more than 60 seconds, filesystems mounted on those mount
points are automatically unmounted.
CREATE AND EDIT /etc/auto.misc
vim /etc/auto.misc
  -fstype=nfs 192.168.0.X:/rhome/
where X is your NIS server IP Address.
START AND ENABLE THE SERVICES AFTER REBOOT
service autofs start/restart/reload
chkconfig autofs on
service ypbind start/restart/reload
chkconfig ypbind on
NISUSER login should be successfully display the home directory of the NISUSER

NFS Network File Service

NFS
NETWORK FILE SERVICE
TO CHECK THE PACKAGE AS FOLLOWS
yum list nfs-utils
IF THE RPM IS NOT AVAILABLE INSTALL THROUGH YUM
yum install nfs-utils
Before configuring the NFS server, observe the RPC services you are now running
rpcinfo -p
MAIN CONFIGURATION SHOULD BE WRITTEN IN /etc/exports
vi /etc/exports
Now we are going to share the '/var/ftp/pub' directory to the redhat.com network, enter the following:
/var/ftp/pub
or
/var/ftp/pub
*.redhat.com(rw,sync,no_root_squash)
192.168.0.0/255.255.255.0(rw,sync,no_root_squash)
START THE DAEMON SERVICES
service portmap start/restart/stop/reload
service nfs start/restart/stop/reload
chkconfig portmap on
chkconfig nfs on
TO VERIFY THE FILES ARE EXPORTED USING THE FOLLOWING
showmount -e localhost
or
/var/ftp/pub *.example.com
/var/ftp/pub 192.168.0.0/255.255.255.0
exportfs -v
/var/ftp/pub
/var/ftp/pub
192.168.0.0/255.255.255.0(rw,wdelay,no_root_squash)
*.example.com(rw,wdelay,no_root_squash)
CLIENT SIDE CONFIGURATION:
To check which directory is exported
showmount -e
mount the shared directory to your local file system
mount 192.168.0.x:/var/ftp/pub /mnt

MAIL CERTIFICATION

MAIL CERTIFICATION
INSTALL THE DOVECOT RPM USING YUM INSTALLER
yum -y install dovecot
CONFIGURATION FILE CAN BE EDITED AS FOLLOWS
vim /etc/dovecot.conf
SEARCH FOR THE TEXT "protocols" THEN COPY THE LINE AND ENABLE IT.
protocols = imap imaps pop3 pop3s
STARTING SERVICE AND ENABLING FOR AFTER REBOOT
service dovecot restart
chkconfig dovecot on
MAKING THE POP3 CERTIFICATION
make -C /etc/pki/tls/certs dovecot.pem
TO ENABLE THE SSL CERTIFICATE PRIVATE KEY.
cp /etc/pki/tls/certs/dovecot.pem /etc/pki/tls/private/dovecot.pem
vim /etc/dovecot.conf
SEARCH FOR THE TEXT "pki" THEN COPY THE LINES AND MODIFY IT
ssl_cert_file = /etc/pki/tls/certs/dovecot.pem
ssl_key_file = /etc/pki/tls/private/dovecot.pem
RESTARTING THE SERVICE AFTER THE MODIFICATION OF CONFIGURATION FILE
service dovecot restart
VERIFYING THE CERTIFICATE CREATED
mutt mailto:-f%7Broot@stationX.example.com}
This is the certificate created to the example.com, it can be used by the users of that domain.
NEW ALIASES
TO FORWARD MAIL TO ANOTHER USER:
EXAMPLE: forward root's mail to user manager
THE MAIN CONFIGURATION FILE IS /etc/aliases
vim /etc/aliases
ENTER THE FOLLOWING DATA IN THE LAST LINE
root:
TO ENABLE THE ALIASES RUN
newaliases
VERIFY THIS BY SENDING MAIL TO ROOT, THIS MAIL IS RECEIVED BY THE USER MANAGER.
echo " message to root " | mail -v -s aliases root@stationx
manager

Mail server

Packages needed: sendmail, sendmail-cf, sendmail-doc

port used by this daemon : 25

Using yum installer to install the RPM's needed for configuration

yum list sendmail*
yum install sendmail*

CONFIGURING THE MTA TO RECEIVE MAIL

make a backup of your original sendmail.cf and sendmail.mc:
cp /etc/mail/sendmail.cf /etc/mail/sendmail.cf.orig
cp /etc/mail/sendmail.mc /etc/mail/sendmail.mc.orig
EDITING THE CONFIGURATION FILE
vim /etc/mail/sendmail.mc
search text /127.0.0.1
comment the line using "dnl #"



ENTER THE FOLLOWING ENTRY IN THE LAST LINE

Cw
Cwstationx.example.com
local-host-names - INCLUDE ALL ALIASES FOR YOUR MACHINE HERE.
vim /etc/mail/local-host-names
station9.example.com
www9.example.com
THEN REDIRECT sendmail.mc ENTRY TO sendmail.cf
m4 /etc/mail/sendmail.mc > /etc/mail/sendmail.cf

START THE DAEMON SERVICES AND ENABLE AFTER REBOOT

service sendmail start/restart/reload/stop

chkconfig sendmail on
STARTING AND VERIFYING MTA OPERATION

TO CONFIRM THE SENDMAIL IS ENABLED FOR THE APPROPRIATE RUNLEVELS
chkconfig --list sendmail

IF IT IS NOT STARTED, TRY THE FOLLOWING TO START

ntsysv
serviceconf
sendmail -d0 < /dev/null

if sendmail is returning your station name as localhost, you have a misconfigured /etc/hosts, so

remove the localhost entries in /etc/hosts. Check the hostname in /etc/sysconfig/network
==>text mode

==>GUI mode
echo "this is the message"
mail -v -s this is the subject root@stationx

SENDING MAIL USING SMTP
STEP 1 : telnet 192.168.0.X 25
STEP 2 : helo stationX.example.com
STEP 3 : mail from : user@
STEP 4 : rcpt to : user@
STEP 5 : data + ENTER
STEP 6 : type the message
STEP 7 : "." + ENTER
STEP 8 : quit + ENTER

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

DHCP SERVER
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
This server is used to allocate the IP ADDRESS dynamically for the hosts connected to this server
PACKAGE REQUIRED : dhcp
yum list dhcp
IF THE RPM IS NOT INSTALLED THEN USING YUM TO INSTALL
yum install dhcp
STEP 1: Copy the sample file and rename it
cd /usr/share/doc/dhcp-3.0.1/
cp dhcpd.conf.sample /etc/dhcpd.conf
STEP 2: Edit the configuration file as follows
vi /etc/dhcpd.conf
option routers
option subnet-mask
option domain-name
option domain-name-servers
if we want to allocate IP dynamically then do the following:
range dynamic-bootp 192.168.0.200 192.168.0.225;
default-lease-time 21600;
max-lease-time 43200;
if we want to specify a particular HOSTNAME should have to assign a same IP then do the following:
host station201 {
192.168.0.254;
255.255.255.0;
"linux.com";
192.168.0.254;
next-server station201.linux.com;
hardware ethernet 00:50:FC:2A:AB:9D;
fixed-address 192.168.0.201;
}
:wq!
STEP 3: To enable the services
service dhcpd start/restart/reload
chkconfig dhcpd on

Redhat Enterprise Linux Essentials

DISPLAY THE DATE AND TIME
- date
DISPLAY THE CALENDAR
- cal
cal 5 2007
HELP COMMANDS
- whatis
whatis date
Note: whatis actually uses the database called whatis, update the database using the
command 'makewhatis'
- --help
date --help
- man
man cal
man -k (search a keyword present in man pages)
man 5 passwd
- info
info cal
CURRENT WORKING DIRECTORY
- pwd - print name of current/working directory
ABSOLUTEPATH
Begin with a forward slash, complete road map of file location.
vim /var/named/chroot/etc/named.conf
RELATIVE PATH
Do not begin with a slash, specify location relative to your
current working directory
cd var
cd named
CHANGING DIRECTORIES
--> To an absolute path
ex: cd //
--> To an relative path
ex: cd
--> To your home directory (anyuser including root)
cd
--> To a your previous working directory
cd -
--> To a your previous directory
cd ..
LISTING DIRECTORY CONTENTS
--> ls ( lists the contents of the current directory)
--> ls -a (include hidden file)
--> ls -l (or) ll (long listing)
--> ls /usr (display contents of the directory)
--> ls *.
--> ls -R (displays files including sub directories)
--> ls -ld (directory and symlink information)
COPY FILES AND DIRECTORIES
--> cp [options] file destination
--> cp [options] file1 file2 destination
--> cp -i (ask for overwriting a file)
--> cp -r (copy a directory and subdirectry)
MOVING AND RENAMING FILES AND DIRECTORIES
--> mv (move and rename directories,files)
--> mv [options] file destination
--> mv [options] file1 file2 destination
-f, --force
do not prompt before overwriting
-i, --interactive
prompt before overwrite
CREATING FILES
--> touch (create the empty files)
--> touch {one,two}.
--> vi ( view and edit the files)
--> vi . ( create the hidden files)
--> cat > ( create the new file)
REMOVING FILES
--> rm
--> rm *.
--> rm -i
--> rm -r
--> rm -f
(interactive)
(recursive)
(force)
CREATING DIRECTORY
--> mkdir

(creates the directories)
--> mkdir -p /
(creates the directory and sub directory)
REMOVING THE DIRECTORY
--> rmdir < Empty directory Name>
--> rm -i

--> rm -r

--> rm -f

DETERMINING FILE CONTENT
-
VIEWING TEXT PAGE BY PAGE
-
(interactive)
(recursive)
(force)
file
less [options] [filename]
Space
b
Enter
k
g
G
/text
q
v
Ex: less /etc/passwd
(moves ahead one full screen)
(moves back one full screen)
(moves ahead one line)
(moves back one line)
(moves to the top of the line)
moves to the bottom of the line)
(searches for text)
(quits)
(go to vim editor mode and returns)
USERS, GROUPS, AND PERMISSIONS
- Users and groups are used to control access to files.
- Every file is owned by a user and associated with group
- Every process has an owner and group affiliation.
USERS
- Every user is assigned a unique user ID number(uid)
- Users' names and uids are stored in /etc/passwd
- Users are assigned a home directory and a progam that is run when
they log in.(A shell is a program)
Ex: useradd
GROUPS
- Users are assigned to groups
- Each group is assigned a unique Group ID number(gid)
- gids are stored in /etc/groups
- Each user is given their own private group
- All users in a group can share files that belong to the group.
Ex: groupadd
PERMISSIONS
- File and directories have permissions to determine user’s access-levels.
- permissions are set to:
i)the owner of the file
ii) the group members
iii) all others
- permissions that are set are called read,write,and excute
PERMISSIONS TYPES
- Four symbols are used to when displaying permissions
r --> read the file or list a directory's contents
w --> write the file or create and remove files from directory
x --> permission to execute a program or change into a directory and do
a long listing of the directory
- --> no permissions.
Note: file permissions are viewed by "ls -l" and ll (long listing)
CHANGING FILE OWNERSHIP
- chown [-R] username
where R is recursive
Note: Only root can change a file’s owner
CHANGING GROUP OWNERSHIP
- chgrp[-R] groupname
Note: Only root or the owner can change a file's group
DEFAULT PERMISSIONS
Default permission for directories is 777 minus umask
Default permission for files is the directory default without execute permission.
umask is set with the umask command.
Non-privileged users' umask is 002
Files will have permissions of 664
Directories will have permissions of 775
root's umask is 022
CHANGING PERMISSIONS -SYMBOLIC METHOD
- chmod [-R] mode
mode:
u,g,o for user, group and other
+ or - for grant or deny
r,w or x for read write and execute
Ex:
Full permission to user, group and others
chmod u+rwx,g+rwx,o+rwx
or
chmod ugo+rwx
Full permission to user, read permission to group and read permission to others.
chmod u+rwx,g+r,o+r
Full permission for the user and the group, read permission for the others
chmod ug+rwx,0-wx
CHANGING PERMISSIONS - NUMERIC METHOD
- uses a three-digit mode number
First digit specifies owner's permissions
Second digit specifies group's permissions
Third digit specifies other's permissions
- permissions are calculated by adding
4 for read
2 for write
1 for execute
Ex: chmod 777
Full permission to all
chmod 641
Read and write permission to owner,
Read permission for the group,
Execute permission for others

No space left on device/filesize limit exceeded in AIX 6.1

When transfering file by FTP,
will get a error message "No space left on device/filesize limit exceeded" in AIX 6.1

$ pwd
/home/oracle
$ ftp 192.168.124.62
Connected to 192.168.124.62.

220 192.168.124.62 FTP server (Version 4.2 Thu Dec 16 16:45:49 CST 2010) ready.
Name (192.168.124.62:oracle): oracle
331 Password required for oracle.
Password:
230 User oracle logged in.


ftp > cd /app/soft
250 CWD command successful.
ftp> ls -ltr
200 PORT command successful.
150 Opening data connection for /bin/ls
-rwx------ 1 oracle oinstall         141852 Dec 27 15:18  unzip

-rwx------ 1 oracle oinstall 1073741312 Dec 27 17:35 10gr2_aix5l64_database.cpio.gz

ftp > hash
ftp > get 10gr2_aix5l64_database.cpio.gz
200 PORT command successful.

150 Opening data connection for 10gr2_aix5l64_database.cpio.gz
###############################################
###############################################
###############################################
#############...
10gr2_aix5l64_database.cpio.gz: short write

No space left on device/filesize limit exceeded.
226 File send OK.
225 No transfer to ABOR.

ftp > bye
 _______________________________


But in 192.168.1.124.62 server
There is enough space on the mount points.


$ df -g
Filesystem GB blocks    Free %Used    Iused %    Iused Mounted on
/dev/hd4        1.00         0.93     8%       2795        2%         /
/dev/hd2        2.00         0.80   61%     29055      13%        /usr
/dev/hd9var   6.00         5.22   14%         621        1%        /var
/dev/hd3        3.00         2.91     3%       1251        1%       /tmp
/proc              -              -           -                 -         -         /proc
/dev/hd10opt 2.00         0.94   53%       8306        4%       /opt
/dev/fslv00   45.00       26.86   41%   629463      10%      /app
/dev/fslv01     5.00         2.18   57%       4497        1%      /home
/dev/fslv02   80.00       70.41   12%       9779        1%     /data

So, Login into "root" user,
$ sudo su -
password root: ********


root:/home #
edit the /etc/security/limits file,

and add the oracle user with value "unlimit" or "-1"
# view /etc/security/limits

root :
                fsize = -1
                data = -1
                  rss = -1
              stack = -1
               core = -1
      fsize_hard = -1
       cpu_hard = -1
      data_hard = -1
    stack_hard = -1
     core_hard = -1
           nofiles = -1


oracle:

            fsize = -1
            data = -1
              rss = -1
          stack = -1
           core = -1
  fsize_hard = -1
   cpu_hard = -1
  data_hard = -1
stack_hard = -1
 core_hard = -1
       nofiles = -1

Finally, you have to restart the machine to take effects the changes. . .
after reboot, now you can transfer what ever you want...

Tuesday, 27 December 2011

родроЮ்роЪைрок் рокிро░роХродீроЪுро╡ро░ро░் роХோропிро▓்

родроЮ்роЪைрок் рокெро░ுро╡ுроЯைропாро░் роХோропிро▓் роЕро▓்ро▓родு рокிро░роХродீроЪுро╡ро░ро░் роХோропிро▓் [1] роЕро▓்ро▓родு родроЮ்роЪை рокெро░ிроп роХோропிро▓் [2] родроЮ்роЪாро╡ூро░ிро▓ுро│்ро│ роЗрои்родு роЪрооропроХ் роХோропிро▓ுроо் роЙро▓роХрок் рокாро░роо்рокро░ிропроЪ் роЪிрой்ройрооுроо் роЖроХுроо். роЗроХ்роХோропிро▓், 10 роЖроо் роиூро▒்ро▒ாрог்роЯிро▓், роЪோро┤рок் рокேро░ро░роЪு роЕродрой் роЙроЪ்роЪ роиிро▓ைропிро▓ிро░ுрои்родрокோродு, роЗро░ாроЬро░ாроЬ роЪோро┤ роорой்ройройாро▓் роХроЯ்роЯрок்рокроЯ்роЯродு. роЖро░роо்рокрод்родிро▓் роЗро░ாроЬро░ாроЬேро╕்ро╡ро░роо் роОрой்ро▒ுроо், рокிрой்ройро░், родроЮ்роЪைропை роиாропроХ்роХро░்роХро│் роЖрог்роЯроХாро▓род்родிро▓், родроЮ்роЪைрок் рокெро░ுро╡ுроЯைропாро░் роХோропிро▓் роОрой்ро▒ுроо் роЕро┤ைроХ்роХрок்рокроЯ்роЯ роЗроХ் роХோропிро▓், 17, 18роЖроо் роиூро▒்ро▒ாрог்роЯுроХро│ிро▓் рооро░ாроЯ்роЯிроп роорой்ройро░்роХро│ாро▓் роЖро│рок்рокроЯ்роЯрокோродு рокிро░ுроХродீроЪுро╡ро░роо் роЖроХிропродு. родроЮ்роЪைрок் рокெро░ிропроХோро╡ிро▓் роОройро╡ுроо் роЗроХ்роХோро╡ிро▓் роЕро▒ிропрок்рокроЯுроХிро▒родு.

роЗроХ்роХோропிро▓் роХроЯ்роЯрок்рокроЯ்роЯрокோродிро░ுрои்род роХாро▓роо், роЪோро┤ро░ாроЯ்роЪிропிрой் рокொро▒்роХாро▓рооாроХுроо். родрооிро┤்роиாроЯு рооுро┤ுро╡родுроо் роТро░ே роХுроЯைроХ்роХீро┤் роЗро░ுрои்родродுроЯрой், роОро▓்ро▓ைроХ்роХрок்рокாро▓ுроо் рокро▓ роЗроЯроЩ்роХро│் роЪோро┤рок் рокேро░ро░роЪிрой் роХீро┤் роЗро░ுрои்родродுроЯрой், рокெро░ுрооро│ро╡ு ро╡ро░ுро╡ாропுроо் роХிроЯைрод்родுро╡рои்родродு. рокெро░ுрооро│ро╡ு роЖро│்рокро▓рооுроо், роЕро░роЪройிрой் роЪிро╡рокроХ்родிропோроЯு роХூроЯிроп роЖро│ுрооைропுроо், роЗрод்родроХைропродொро░ு рокிро░роо்рооாрог்роЯрооாрой роХோропிро▓ை роЪுрооாро░் 7 роЖрог்роЯுроХро│ிро▓் роХроЯ்роЯிрооுроЯிрок்рокродро▒்роХுрод் родுрогைропாроХ роЗро░ுрои்родродு.

роЗрой்ро▒ு родрооிро┤роХрод்родிрой் рооிроХ рооுроХ்роХிропрооாрой роЪுро▒்ро▒ுро▓ாрод்родро▓рооாроХ ро╡ிро│роЩ்роХுроо் роЗродு 1987роо் роЖрог்роЯு роРроХ்роХிроп роиாроЯுроХро│் роХро▓்ро╡ி, роЕро▒ிро╡ிропро▓், рокрог்рокாроЯ்роЯு роиிро▒ுро╡ройрод்родாро▓் роЙро▓роХ рокாро░роо்рокро░ிроп роЪிрой்ройрооாроХ роЕро▒ிро╡ிроХ்роХрок்рокроЯ்роЯродு[3]

1006роо் роЖрог்роЯு роХроЯ்роЯрод் родொроЯроЩ்роХி 1010роо் роЖрог்роЯு рооுроЯிроХ்роХрок்рокроЯ்роЯ роЗрои்род роХோропிро▓ுроХ்роХு 2010ро╡родு роЖрог்роЯோроЯு 1000 ро╡ропродு рокூро░்род்родிропாроХிрой்ро▒родு[4].


рокொро░ுро│роЯроХ்роХроо் [рооро▒ை]

1 роород்родிроп роЪோро┤ро░் роХாро▓роо்

2 роХோропிро▓் роЕрооைрок்рокு

3 роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│்

4 роирои்родி

5 родроЮ்роЪை рокெро░ிропроХோро╡ிро▓் роЙро░ுро╡роо் рокродிрод்род родрокாро▓் родро▓ை

6 роЖропிро░роо் ро░ூрокாроп் роиோроЯ்роЯு

7 роЖропிро░рооாрог்роЯு роиிро▒ைро╡ு ро╡ிро┤ா


роород்родிроп роЪோро┤ро░் роХாро▓роо்роХி.рокி. 985 рооுродро▓் 1070 ро╡ро░ை роЪோро┤ро░் роХро▓ை роЙропро░்ро╡роЯைрои்родு роЙроЪ்роЪ роиிро▓ைропிро▓் роЗро░ுрои்родродு. роЗрои்родроХ் роХாро▓род்родை роород்родிроп роЪோро┤ро░் роХாро▓роо் роОрой்ро▒ро┤ைроХ்роХро▓ாроо், роЗрои்родроХ் роХாро▓род்родிро▓் роПро░ாро│рооாрой роХோропிро▓்роХро│் роХроЯ்роЯрок்рокроЯ்роЯрой. рокро░рои்родு роХிроЯрои்род роЪோро┤рок் рокேро░ро░роЪு роОроЩ்роХுроо் роХோропிро▓்роХро│் роХроЯ்роЯுроо் рокрогி родொроЯро░்роЪ்роЪிропாроХ роироЯрои்родродு. роЗроХ்роХாро▓род்родிро▓் роОрод்родройைропோ роЪிро▒ு роХோропிро▓்роХро│் роХроЯ்роЯрок்рокроЯ்роЯрой.

           роХோропிро▓் роЕрооைрок்рокுроЪோро┤рок் рокேро░ро░роЪிрой் ро╡ிро░ிрои்родுро╡ро░ுроо் рокро░рок்рокிро▒்роХுроо் ро╡ро│ро░்рои்родு ро╡ро░ுроо் ро╡роЪродிроХ்роХுроо் роУроЩ்роХிро╡ро░ுроо் роЕродிроХாро░род்родிро▒்роХுроо் рокொро░ுрод்родрооாроХроХ் роХроЯ்роЯроЯроХ் роХро▓ைропிро▓் родрооிро┤ро░ுроЯைроп роЪாродройைропாроХ роЗрои்родроХ் роХோропிро▓ை роЗро░ாроЬро░ாроЬрой் роХроЯ்роЯ роиிройைрод்родாрой் рокோро▓ுроо் рооுроХ்роХிропрооாрой роХроЯ்роЯроЯроо் 150 роЕроЯி роиீро│роо் роЗро░ுроХ்роХிро▒родு. рооிроХрок் рокிро░роо்рооாрог்роЯрооாрой ро╡ிрооாройроо் роОроХிрок்родிропрок் рокிро░рооிроЯுроХро│ைрок் рокோро▓ роХூро░்роиுройிроХ் роХோрокுро░рооாроХ роЕрооைрои்родு роХро░்рок்рокроХ்роХிро░роХрод்родிро▓ிро░ுрои்родு 190 роЕроЯி роЙропро░род்родிро▒்роХு роУроЩ்роХி ро╡ро│ро░்рои்родிро░ுроХ்роХிро▒родு. роЕроХ்роХாро▓род்родிро▓் рокுро╡ройேро╕்ро╡ро░род்родிро▓் роХроЯ்роЯрок்рокроЯ்роЯ ро▓ிроЩ்роХро░ாроЬро░் роХோропிро▓ிрой் роЙропро░роо் 160роЕроЯி. роЗро░ாроЬро░ாроЬேро╕்ро╡ро░роо் роЕродைропுроо் рооிроЮ்роЪி ро╡ிроЯ்роЯрооை роХுро▒ிрок்рокிроЯрод்родроХ்роХродு. роЗрои்родроХ் роХோропிро▓ிро▓் рокிро▒்роХாро▓род்родிро▓் роХроЯ்роЯрок்рокроЯ்роЯро╡ை - рооுрой் родாро┤்ро╡ாро░роо், роирои்родி роорог்роЯрокроо், роХро░ுро╡ூро░்род் родேро╡ро░் роХோропிро▓, роЕроо்роорой் роХோропிро▓், роЪுрок்рокிро░роорогிропро░் роХோропிро▓் роЖроХிропрой.

           родроЮ்роЪைрок் рокெро░ிроп роХோропிро▓், роТро░ு родோро▒்ро▒роо்роЗро╡ை родро╡ிро░ роЗрои்род рооாрокெро░ுроо் роХோропிро▓ிрой் роПройைроп рокроХுродிроХро│் ропாро╡ுроо் роТро░ே роХாро▓род்родро╡ை. роЗро╡ро▒்ро▒ிройுроЯைроп рокெро░ுрооிродрод் родோро▒்ро▒род்родைропுроо் роТро░ுроЩ்роХிрогைрои்род родிроЯ்роЯрод்родிрой் роОро│ிрооைропாрой роЗропро▓்рокைропுроо் рокாро░ாроЯ்роЯாрооро▓் роЗро░ுроХ்роХрооுроЯிропாродு. родுрогைроЪ் роЪாро░்рои்род(Axial)роорог்роЯрокроЩ்роХро│ுроо் ро╡ிрооாройрооுроо் роЕро░்род்род роорог்роЯрокрооுроо் роороХாроорог்роЯрокрооுроо் рокெро░ிроп роирои்родிропுроо் роЕро╡ро▒்ро▒ிро▒்роХேро▒்ро▒ рокொро░ுрод்родрооாрой роЕро│ро╡ுроХро│ைропுроЯைроп роТро░ு роЪுро▒்ро▒ுроЪ் роЪுро╡ро░ுроХ்роХுро│் роЕроЯроЩ்роХிропிро░ுроХ்роХிрой்ро▒рой. роЗроЪ்роЪுро╡ро░ிро▓் роХிро┤роХ்роХே роТро░ு роХோрокுро░роо் роЗро░ுроХ்роХிро▒родு. роородிро▓ை роТроЯ்роЯி роЙро│்рокроХ்роХрооாроХ рокро▓ родூрог்роХро│ுро│்ро│ роТро░ு роиீрог்роЯ роорог்роЯрокроо் роЪெро▓்ро▓ுроХிро▒родு. роЗродு 35 роЙроЯ்роХோропிро▓்роХро│ை роЗрогைроХ்роХிро▒родு. роиாрой்роХு родிроХ்роХுроХро│ிро▓ுроо் рокро▓ роЗроЯைро╡ெро│ிроХро│ுроХ்роХு роироЯுро╡ே роХேрои்родிро░рооாрой роЗроЯроЩ்роХро│ிро▓் роЗрои்род роЙроЯ்роХோропிро▓்роХро│் роХроЯ்роЯрок் рокெро▒்ро▒ிро░ுроХ்роХிрой்ро▒рой. роЗро░рог்роЯாро╡родு ро╡ெро│ிрок் рокிро░роХாро░род்родிрой் ро╡ாропிро▓ாроХ роЗро░ுрои்род роЗроЯрод்родிро▓் рооுрой் рокроХ்роХрод்родிро▓் роЗро░рог்роЯாро╡родு роХோрокுро░роо் роЗро░ுроХ்роХிро▒родு.

           рооுроХ்роХிроп ро╡ிрооாройроо் роЙрод்родроо ро╡роХைропроЪ் роЪாро░்рои்родродு; роЖродро▓ாро▓் роЗродு рооிроХроЪ் роЪிро▒рои்родродு. роЗродை, родрооிро┤ிро▓் рооாроЯроХ்роХோропிро▓் роОрой்ро▒ுроо் роЪொро▓்ро╡ாро░்роХро│். роЗро╡்ро╡роХைроХ்роХு рооுродро▓ாро╡родு роЙродாро░рогроо் родроЯ்роЪிрогрооேро░ு-роХோро░роЩ்роХроиாродро░். роЗродு рокроХ்роХро╡ாроЯ்роЯிро▓் 99 роЕроЯி роЙро│்ро│ роЪродுро░ роЕроЯிрод்родро│род்родிро▓் рооீродு роЕрооைрои்родродு. рокроЯுроХ்роХைропாрой рокроХுродி, роиீрог்роЯு родுро░ுрод்родிроХ் роХொрог்роЯிро░ுроХ்роХுроо். роРрои்родு рокроХுродிроХро│ாроХ рокிро░ிроХ்роХрок்рокроЯ்роЯிро░ுроХ்роХிро▒родு. роироЯுро╡ேропுро│்ро│ рокроХுродி рооро▒்ро▒ рокроХுродிроХро│ை ро╡ிроЯрок் рокெро░ிропродு. родро░ роороЯ்роЯрод்родுроХ்роХுроХ் роХீро┤ே роЗро░ுроХ்роХுроо் родро│род்родிро▓ிро░ுрои்родு роЪிроХро░роо் ро╡ро░ை роХுроЯாро╡ுроо் рооாроЯрооுроо் рооாро▒ி рооாро▒ிроХ் роХாрогрок்рокроЯுроХிрой்ро▒рой. роЪுро╡ро░ிро▓் рокродிрод்род родூрог்роХро│், рокீроЯрод்родை роЕро┤роХுрокроЯுрод்родுроХிрой்ро▒்рой. ропாро│ி роЙро░ுро╡род்родாро▓் роЕро┤ுрод்родрок்рокроЯ்роЯ роХрокோродроо் роЙроЯைроп рокீроЯрод்родிрой் рооீродு, роЗродைро╡ிроЯроЪ் роЪிро▒ிроп рокро░рок்рокிро▓் 63роЕроЯி роЪродுро░род்родிро▓் роТро░ு роЙрокрокீроЯроо் роОро┤ுрок்рокрок்рокроЯ்роЯிро░ுроХ்роХிро▒родு.

            рооேро▓ேропுроо் роХீро┤ேропுроо் рокрод்роородро│роЩ்роХро│் роЙроЯைропродுроо் роЕро░ை ро╡роЯ்роЯ ро╡роЯிро╡род்родிро▓் рокிро░роо்рооாрог்роЯрооாройродாроп் роЕрооைрои்родродுрооாрой роХுрооுродрод்родை роПро▒்ро▒ுроХ்роХொро│்ро│ рокрод்роо родро│рооாроХ, роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│ுроЯрой் роХூроЯிроп роЙрокாройроо் ро╡ிро│роЩ்роХுроХிро▒родு. роХுрооுродроо், роХிро┤роХ்роХு рооூро▓ைропிро▓் роХுро▒ுроХ்роХாроХрод் родிро░ுроо்рокுроо் рокோродு, ро╡ிро│ிроо்рокிро▓் роОрог்роХோрогрооாроХ ро╡ெроЯ்роЯрок்рокроЯுроХிро▒родு. роХрог்роЯрооுроо் роХрокோродрооுроо் роиெро░ுроЩ்роХிроХ் роХாроЯ்роЯрок்рокроЯ்роЯுро│்ро│рой. роХுрооுродрод்родிро▒்роХு роиேро░் роЙропро░род்родிро▓் ро╡ро░ி ро╡ிрооாройроо் роХாройрок்рокроЯுроХிро▒родு. ро╡ро░ிроЪைропாроХрок் рокро▓ роЪிроЩ்роХроЩ்роХро│், роЕро╡ро▒ிрой் рооீродு роЪிроЩ்роХроЩ்роХро│ை роУроЯ்роЯுрокро╡ро░் рооூро▓ைроХро│ிро▓் роЪிроЩ்роХро│ுроХ்роХுрок் рокродிро▓ாроХ, роороХро░роЩ்роХро│ுроо் рокோро░் ро╡ீро░ро░்роХро│ுроо் ро╡ாропைрок் рокிро│рои்родு роХொрог்роЯிро░ுроХ்роХுроо் роХுродிро░ைроХро│ுроо் роЕро╡ро▒்ро▒ிрой் рооீродேро▒ிроЪ் роЪро╡ாро░ி роЪெроп்рокро╡ро░்роХро│ிрой் роЙро░ுро╡роЩ்роХро│ுроо் роЙро│்ро│рой. роЙро│்ро│ுро▒ைропிрой் роЪெроЩ்роХுрод்родாрой роЪுро╡ро░்роХро│் родро│ роЕрооைрок்рокைрок் рокிрой்рокро▒்ро▒ிроп 50роЕроЯி роЙропро░род்родுроХ்роХு роОро┤ுрок்рокрок்рокроЯ்роЯுро│்ро│, рокிро░роо்рооாрог்роЯрооாрой ро╡ро│ைрои்род рокிродுроХ்роХроо் роЕрои்родроЪ் роЪுро╡ро░்роХро│ை роЗро░рог்роЯு рооாроЯிроХро│ாроХрок் рокிро░ிроХ்роХிро▒родு.

             роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│்роЗроХ் роХோропிро▓ிрой் рокро▓ро╡ிроЯроЩ்роХро│ிро▓ுроо் роЗро░ுроХ்роХுроо் роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│், роЗроХ் роХோропிро▓ிро▓் роЗро░ாроЬро░ாроЬрой் роХொрог்роЯிро░ுрои்род родройிрок்рокроЯ்роЯ роХро░ிроЪройрод்родை ро╡ிро│роХ்роХுро╡родாроХроХ் роХூро▒рок்рокроЯுроХிро▒родு. родாрой் роороЯ்роЯுроорой்ро▒ி, роЕро░роЪ роХுроЯுроо்рокрод்родிройро░ுроо், роЕро░роЪ роЕро▓ுро╡ро▓ро░ுроо், рокроЯைропிройро░ுроо், рокொродுроороХ்роХро│ுроо் роЖроХிроп роОро▓்ро▓ோро░ுроЯைроп рокроЩ்роХро│ிрок்рокுроо், роХோропிро▓ிрой் рокро░ாрооро░ிрок்рокிро▓ுроо், рокாродுроХாрок்рокிро▓ுроо் роЗро░ுроХ்роХுроо்рокроЯி рокாро░்род்родுроХ்роХொрог்роЯாройெройро╡ுроо் родெро░ிроХிро▒родு. роиிродிрод்родேро╡ைроХро│ுроо், роЕро░роЪройாро▓் роЗро▒ைропிро▓ிропாроХроХ் роХொроЯுроХ்роХрок்рокроЯ்роЯ роиிро▓роЩ்роХро│ிро▓ுроо், роХிро░ாроороЩ்роХро│ிро▓ிро░ுрои்родுроо் ро╡ро░ுроо் ро╡ро░ுро╡ாропிройாро▓ுроо், роЗрой்ройுроо் ро╡ேро▒ு ро╡ро┤ிроХро│ிро▓ுроо் рокெро▒்ро▒ுроХ்роХொро│்ро│рок்рокроЯ்роЯродு.

           родроЮ்роЪை рокெро░ிроп роХோропிро▓், роЗрой்ройொро░ு родோро▒்ро▒роо்роХோропிро▓ிро▓் роЕрой்ро▒ாроЯ роХро░ுроороЩ்роХро│ை роТро┤ுроЩ்роХாроХроЪ் роЪெропро▓்рокроЯுрод்родுро╡родро▒்роХுрок், рокூроЪроХро░்роХро│ுроо், роЪிро▒்рокிроХро│ுроо் родேро╡ாро░ роУродுро╡ாро░்роХро│ுроо், роЗроЪைро╡ாрогро░்роХро│ுроо், роироЯройрооாродро░்роХро│ுроо், рооேро▓ுроо் роЗрой்ройோро░рой்рой рокрогிропாроЯ்роХро│ுроо் родேро╡ைроХро│ுроХ்роХேро▒்рок роиிропрооிроХ்роХрок்рокроЯ்роЯிро░ுрои்родродாроХрод் родெро░ிроХிро▒родு. 50 роУродுро╡ாро░்роХро│ுроо், 400 роироЯрой рооாродро░்роХро│ுроо் роХோропிро▓ிро▓ிро░ுрои்родродாроХроХ் роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроЪ் роЪாрой்ро▒ுроХро│் рокроХро░்роХிрой்ро▒рой.

          роЪிро╡ро▓ிроЩ்роХроо் рокிро░родிроЯ்роЯை роЪெроп்ропрок்рокроЯ்роЯுро│்ро│, рооுроХ்роХிропрооாрой роХோропிро▓ைропுроо், роЕродройோроЯு роХூроЯிроп роорог்роЯрокроЩ்роХро│ைропுроо் родро╡ிро░, роЪрог்роЯிроХேро╕்ро╡ро░ро░், роЕроо்роорой், роЪுрок்рокிро░роорогிропро░், роХрогрокродி рооро▒்ро▒ுроо் роХро░ுро╡ூро░்род் родேро╡ро░் роХோропிро▓்роХро│ுроо், роЗро╡் ро╡ро│ாроХрод்родுро│் роЕрооைрои்родுро│்ро│рой.

          роЖро▓ропрод்родிройைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ி роЕродрой் ро╡ாропிро▓ிро▓் роЙро│்ро│ роЪெроп்родிрок்рокро▓роХைроЗроХ்роХோропிро▓ிрой் роХроЯ்роЯிроЯроХ்роХро▓ை, роЪோро┤ро░்роХாро▓роХ் роХроЯ்роЯிроЯроХ்роХро▓ைроХ்роХு роиро▓்ро▓родொро░ு роОроЯுрод்родுроХ்роХாроЯ்роЯாроХроХ் роХро░ுродрок்рокроЯுроХிро▒родு.

          роирои்родிродроЮ்роЪைрок் рокெро░ிропроХோро╡ிро▓ிро▓் роЙро│்ро│ роирои்родி роТро░ே роХро▓்ро▓ாро▓் роЪெроп்ропрок்рокроЯ்роЯродு. роЗродрой் роЙропро░роо் 14 рооீ, роиீро│роо் 7 рооீ, роЕроХро▓роо் 3 рооீ роЖроХுроо். роирои்родி роорог்роЯрокроо் роиாропроХ்роХро░் роХாро▓род்родிро▓் роХроЯ்роЯрок்рокроЯ்роЯродாроХроХ் роХூро▒рок்рокроЯுроХிро▒родு.[5]

       родроЮ்роЪை рокெро░ிропроХோро╡ிро▓் роЙро░ுро╡роо் рокродிрод்род родрокாро▓் родро▓ை
роород்родிроп роЕро░роЪு 1995роо் роЖрог்роЯிро▓் рооாроорой்ройро░் ро░ாроЬро░ாроЬ роЪோро┤рой் роЙро░ுро╡роо் рокродிрод்род 2 ро░ூрокாроп் родрокாро▓் родро▓ைропை ро╡ெро│ிропிроЯ்роЯродு.

роЖропிро░роо் ро░ூрокாроп் роиோроЯ்роЯு

родроЮ்роЪை рокெро░ிроп роХோро╡ிро▓ுроХ்роХு рокெро░ுрооை роЪேро░்роХ்роХுроо் ро╡роХைропிро▓் роород்родிроп роЕро░роЪு роЪாро░்рокாроХ роХроЯрои்род 1954&роо் роЖрог்роЯு роПрок்ро░ро▓் 1роЖроо் родேродி 1000 роиோроЯ்роЯை ро╡ெро│ிропிроЯ்роЯродு. роЕродிро▓் родроЮ்роЪை рокெро░ிроп роХோро╡ிро▓் роОройрок்рокроЯுроо் рокிро░роХродீроЪுро╡ро░ро░் роЖро▓ропрод்родிрой் ро╡ிропрод்родроХு родோро▒்ро▒роо் рокродிроХ்роХрок்рокроЯ்роЯродு. ро░ிроЪро░்ро╡் ро╡роЩ்роХிропிрой் 4&ро╡родு роХро╡ро░்ройро░ாрой роЪро░் рокெройроХро▓் ро░ாрооாро░ாро╡், роЕродிро▓் роХைропெро┤ுрод்родிроЯ்роЯாро░். роЯெро▓்ро▓ி, рооுроо்рокை, роХொро▓்роХрод்родா, роЪெрой்ройை рооро▒்ро▒ுроо் роХாрой்рокூро░் роЖроХிроп роироХро░роЩ்роХро│ிро▓் роЕрои்род роЖропிро░роо் ро░ூрокாроп் роиோроЯ்роЯுроХро│் роЕроЪ்роЪிроЯрок்рокроЯ்роЯрой. 5 ро╡ро░ிроЪைроХро│ிро▓ாрой роОрог்роХро│ிро▓் роЕрои்род роиோроЯ்роЯுроХро│் ро╡ெро│ிропாроХிрой. рооுроо்рокைропிро▓் роЕроЪ்роЪிроЯрок்рокроЯ்роЯ роиோроЯ்роЯுроХро│ிрой் ро╡ро░ிроЪை роЖроЩ்роХிро▓ роОро┤ுрод்родு роП роЖроХுроо்.

роЖропிро░рооாрог்роЯு роиிро▒ைро╡ு ро╡ிро┤ா

роЪродропрод்родிро░ுро╡ிро┤ாрод் родோро▒்ро▒роо்родроЮ்роЪை рокெро░ிроп роХோро╡ிро▓ிрой் роЖропிро░роо் роЖрог்роЯு роиிро▒ைро╡ு ро╡ிро┤ாро╡ிройை родроЮ்роЪை рооாроироХро░ிро▓் 2010 роЪெрок்роЯроо்рокро░் 25, роЪெрок்роЯроо்рокро░் 26-рои் родேродி роЖроХிроп 2 роиாроЯ்роХро│ுроХ்роХு роЪிро▒рок்рокுро▒ роироЯрод்родрок்рокроЯ்роЯродு.


роород்родிроп роорои்родிро░ி роЖ. ро░ாроЪா рокெро░ிропроХோро╡ிро▓் роЙро░ுро╡роо் рокொро▒ிрод்род 5 ро░ூрокாроп் роЪிро▒рок்рокு родрокாро▓் родро▓ைропை рооுродро▓்-роЕрооைроЪ்роЪро░் рооு. роХро░ுрогாроиிродி рооுрой்ройிро▓ைропிро▓் ро╡ெро│ிропிроЯ்роЯாро░். роЕродை роород்родிроп роорои்родிро░ி роЬி.роХே.ро╡ாроЪрой் рокெро▒்ро▒ுроХ்роХொрог்роЯாро░்.

роЪிро▒рок்рокு родрокாро▓் родро▓ைропிрой் рооாродிро░ி ро╡роЯிро╡род்родை, рооுродро▓்-роЕрооைроЪ்роЪро░் роХро░ுрогாроиிродி родிро▒рои்родு ро╡ைрод்родாро░். рокிрой்ройро░் роород்родிроп роорои்родிро░ி роОро╕்.роОро╕்.рокро┤ройிрооாрогிроХ்роХроо் рокெро░ிроп роХோро╡ிро▓் рооро▒்ро▒ுроо் ро░ாроЬро░ாроЬрой் роЙро░ுро╡роо் рокொро▒ிрод்род 5 ро░ூрокாроп் роиாрогропрод்родை ро╡ெро│ிропிроЯ, роЕродை роород்родிроп роорои்родிро░ி роиாро░ாропрогроЪாрооி рокெро▒்ро▒ுроХ்роХொрог்роЯாро░்.

ро╡ிро┤ாро╡ிрой் рооுродро▓் роиாро│் роХாро▓ை рооுродро▓் роиாроЯ்роЯுрок்рокுро▒роХ் роХро▓ைроЮро░்роХро│ிрой் рокро▓்ро╡ேро▒ு родெро░ுро╡ோро░ роиிроХро┤்роЪ்роЪிроХро│் роироХро░ிрой் рокро▓ рокроХுродிроХро│ிро▓் роироЯрод்родрок்рокроЯ்роЯродு. рооாро▓ைропிро▓் родроЮ்роЪை рокெро░ிроп роХோро╡ிро▓ிро▓் роЕройைрод்родிрои்родிроп рокро░родроиாроЯ்роЯிроп роХро▓ைроЮро░்роХро│் роЪроЩ்роХрод்родிрой் роЪாро░்рокிро▓் рокрод்рооா роЪுрок்ро░роорогிропрод்родிрой் родро▓ைрооைропிро▓் роЖропிро░роо் роироЯройроХ்роХро▓ைроЮро░்роХро│் роХро▓рои்родு роХொрог்роЯ рооாрокெро░ுроо் роиிроХро┤்роЪ்роЪி роЗроЯроо்рокெро▒்ро▒родு. роЕрои்род роироЯрой роиிроХро┤்роЪ்роЪிроХ்роХு рооுрой்рокாроХ роиாродро╕்ро╡ро░ роЗроЪை роиிроХро┤்роЪ்роЪிропுроо், роироЯрой роиிроХро┤்роЪ்роЪிроХ்роХுрок் рокிрой்ройро░் 100 роУродுро╡ாро░்роХро│ிрой் родிро░ுрооுро▒ை роЗроЪை роиிроХро┤்роЪ்роЪிропுроо் роироЯрод்родрок்рокроЯ்роЯродு.

роЗро░рог்роЯாроо் роиாро│் роХாро▓ைропிро▓் родроЮ்роЪை родрооிро┤்рок்рокро▓்роХро▓ைроХ்роХро┤роХрод்родிро▓் роЖроп்ро╡ро░роЩ்роХрооுроо், родроЮ்роЪை рокெро░ிроп роХோро╡ிро▓ிро▓் рокொродு роЕро░роЩ்роХрооுроо், рооாро▓ைропிро▓் родроЮ்роЪை родிро▓роХро░் родிроЯро▓ிро▓் рооுродро▓்ро╡ро░் роХро░ுрогாроиிродி родро▓ைрооைропிро▓் родроЮ்роЪை рокெро░ிроп роХோро╡ிро▓் роЖропிро░роо் роЖрог்роЯு роиிро▒ைро╡ு роиிройைро╡ு роиாрогропроо் рооро▒்ро▒ுроо் роЕроЮ்роЪро▓் родро▓ை ро╡ெро│ிропிроЯுродро▓், родроЮ்роЪை рооாроироХро░ுроХ்роХாрой роЕроЯிрок்рокроЯை роХроЯ்роЯрооைрок்рокு ро╡роЪродிроХро│ை родொроЯроЩ்роХுродро▓் роЖроХிроп роиிроХро┤்ро╡ுроХро│் роЗроЯроо்рокெро▒்ро▒рой. ро╡ро░ро▓ாро▒்ро▒ு роХрог்роХாроЯ்роЪி роТрой்ро▒ுроо் роироЯрод்родрок்рокроЯ்роЯродு[6].



роЪோро┤ро░் рокроЯை

роЪோро┤ роорой்ройро░்роХро│ிрой் рокроЯ்роЯிропро▓்
рооுро▒்роХாро▓роЪ் роЪோро┤ро░்роХро│்
роЪெроо்рокிропрой்роОро▓்ро▓ாро│рой்
роЗро│роЮ்роЪேроЯ்роЪெрой்ройிроХро░ிроХாро▓் роЪோро┤рой்
роиெроЯுроЩ்роХிро│்ро│ிроиро▓роЩ்роХிро│்ро│ி
роХிро│்ро│ிро╡ро│ро╡рой்роХோрок்рокெро░ுроЮ்роЪோро┤рой்
роХோроЪ்роЪெроЩ்роХрогாрой்рокெро░ுроиро▒்роХிро│்ро│ி
рооாро▒்ро▒ாро░் роЗроЯைропாроЯ்роЪி роХி.рокி. 200-848
роЗроЯைроХ்роХாро▓роЪ் роЪோро┤ро░்роХро│்
ро╡ிроЪропாро▓роп роЪோро┤рой்роХி.рокி. 848-871(?)
роЖродிрод்род роЪோро┤рой்871-907 CE
рокро░ாрои்родроХ роЪோро┤рой் IроХி.рокி. 907-950
роХрог்роЯро░ாродிрод்родро░்роХி.рокி. 949/50-957
роЕро░ிроЮ்роЪроп роЪோро┤рой்роХி.рокி. 956-957
роЪுрои்родро░ роЪோро┤рой்роХி.рокி. 956-973
роЖродிрод்род роХро░ிроХாро▓рой்роХி.рокி. 957-969
роЙрод்родроо роЪோро┤рой்роХி.рокி. 970-985
роЗро░ாроЪро░ாроЪ роЪோро┤рой் IроХி.рокி. 985-1014
роЗро░ாроЪேрои்родிро░ роЪோро┤рой்роХி.рокி. 1012-1044
роЗро░ாроЪாродிро░ாроЪ роЪோро┤рой்роХி.рокி. 1018-1054
роЗро░ாроЪேрои்родிро░ роЪோро┤рой் IIроХி.рокி. 1051-1063
ро╡ீро░ро░ாроЬேрои்родிро░ роЪோро┤рой்роХி.рокி. 1063-1070
роЕродிро░ாроЬேрои்родிро░ роЪோро┤рой்роХி.рокி. 1067-1070
роЪாро│ுроХ்роХிроп роЪோро┤ро░்роХро│்
роХுро▓ோрод்родுроЩ்роХ роЪோро┤рой் IроХி.рокி. 1070-1120
ро╡ிроХ்роХிро░роо роЪோро┤рой்роХி.рокி. 1118-1135
роХுро▓ோрод்родுроЩ்роХ роЪோро┤рой் IIроХி.рокி. 1133-1150
роЗро░ாроЪро░ாроЪ роЪோро┤рой் IIроХி.рокி. 1146-1163
роЗро░ாроЪாродிро░ாроЪ роЪோро┤рой் IIроХி.рокி. 1163-1178
роХுро▓ோрод்родுроЩ்роХ роЪோро┤рой் IIIроХி.рокி. 1178-1218
роЗро░ாроЪро░ாроЪ роЪோро┤рой் IIIроХி.рокி. 1216-1256
роЗро░ாроЪேрои்родிро░ роЪோро┤рой் IIIроХி.рокி. 1246-1279
роЪோро┤ро░் роЪрооூроХроо்
роЪோро┤ роЕро░роЪாроЩ்роХроо்роЪோро┤ роЗро░ாрогுро╡роо்
роЪோро┤ро░் роХро▓ைроЪோро┤ро░்роХாро▓ роЗро▓роХ்роХிропроо்
рокூроо்рокுроХாро░்роЙро▒ைропூро░்
роХроЩ்роХைроХொрог்роЯ роЪோро┤рокுро░роо்родроЮ்роЪாро╡ூро░்
родெро▓ுроЩ்роХுроЪ் роЪோро┤ро░்роХро│்
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рокொро░ுро│роЯроХ்роХроо்

 [рооро▒ை
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  • 2 рооூрой்ро▒ு роХை роороХாроЪேройைропைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிроп ро╡ро░ро▓ாро▒்ро▒ுроХ் роХுро▒ிрок்рокு
  • 3 роЪீрой роЕро▒ிроЮро░்роХро│ிрой் роЪோро┤ро░்рокроЯைропைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிроп роХுро▒ிрок்рокு
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рокроЯை

роХроЯро▒்рокроЯை, роЙро│்роиாроЯ்роЯிрой் рокроЯை роЖроХிроп роЕройைрод்родிро▒்роХுроо் роЕро░роЪро░ே родро▓ைро╡ро░் роЖро╡ாро░். роЗрок்рокроЯை рокро▓ рокிро░ிро╡ுроХро│ாроХ роЕрооைрои்родு роТро╡்ро╡ொро░ு рокிро░ிро╡ுроо் родройிрок்рокெропро░ாро▓் роЕро┤ைроХ்роХрок்рокроЯ்роЯродு. роЗро╡ை роТрой்ро▒ுрокроЯ்роЯ роЕрооைрок்рокாроХро╡ே роЗропроЩ்роХிрой. родроЩ்роХро│் рокெропро░ாро▓ேропே роХோропிро▓்роХро│் роЕрооைроХ்роХро╡ுроо் роЕро╡ро▒்ро▒ிро▒்роХுрод் родாройроЩ்роХро│் роХொроЯுроХ்роХро╡ுроо் роЗрок்рокிро░ிро╡ுроХро│ுроХ்роХு роЙро░ிрооை роЗро░ுрои்родродு. родройிрок்рокроЯ்роЯ рокроЯை ро╡ீро░ро░்роХро│ுроо் роЗро╡்ро╡ாро▒ு родாройроо் роЪெроп்родро╡ро░்роХро│ிрой் рокெропро░்роХро│ுроо் роЕро╡ро░ைроЪ் роЪாро░்рои்род рокроЯைрок்рокிро░ிро╡ிрой் рокெропро░்роХро│ுроо் роироороХ்роХு роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│ிрой் рооூро▓роо் роХிроЯைрод்родுро│்ро│рой. роЗрок்рокроЯைроХро│ிрой் роЗро░ாрогுро╡ ро╡ாро┤்роХ்роХை рооுро▒ைропைро╡ிроЯ, ро╡ீро░ро░்роХро│் родроо் родройிрок்рокроЯ்роЯ ро╡ாро┤்роХ்роХைропிро▓் роЪெроп்род рокрогிроХро│ைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிрод்родாрой் роЕродிроХрооாроХ роЕро▒ிропроХ் роХிроЯைроХ்роХிро▒родு.
роПро▒роХ்роХுро▒ைроп 30-роХ்роХுроо் рооேро▒்рокроЯ்роЯ роЗрок்рокроЯைрок் рокிро░ிро╡ுроХро│ிрой் рокெропро░்роХро│ை роЗро░ாроЬро░ாроЬройிрой் роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│ிро▓ிро░ுрои்родு роЕро▒ிроЮро░் родிро░ு. ро╡ெроЩ்роХроп்ропா роЕро╡ро░்роХро│் роЪேроХро░ிрод்родிро░ுроХ்роХிро▒ாро░். роЗро╡ро▒்ро▒ை роЗро░ாроЬро░ாроЬройுроХ்роХு рооுрой்ройுроо் рокிрой்ройுроо் роЗро░ுрои்род рокிро░ிро╡ுроХро│ுроЯрой் роЪேро░்род்родுроХ் роХрогроХ்роХிроЯ்роЯாро▓் роЪுрооாро░் 70 роЖроХ роЙропро░ுроо். роЗро╡ை роТро╡்ро╡ொрой்ро▒ிрой் рокெропро░ுроо், роЕрок்рокроЯைроп родுро╡роХ்роХிроп роХாро▓род்родைропுроо் роЪூро┤்роиிро▓ைропைропுроо் роороХ்роХро│ுроХ்роХு роиிройைро╡ூроЯ்роЯுро╡родாроп் роЗро░ுрои்родிро░ுроХ்роХроХ்роХூроЯுроо். роЗродுро╡ро░ை роиாроо் роЕро▒ிропாрод роЕро░роЪро░்роХро│ிрой் рокро▓ ро╡ிро░ுродுроХро│ே роЗро╡ро▒்ро▒ிрой் рокெропро░்роХро│ாропிрой. роЙродாро░рогрод்родிро▒்роХு рокாро░்род்родிрок роЪேроХро░рой், роЪрооро░роХேроЪро░ி, ро╡ிроХ்роХிро░роороЪிроЩ்роХрой், родாропродொроЩ்роХрой், родாройродொроЩ்роХрой், роЪрог்роЯрокро░ாроХ்роХிро░роорой், роЗро░ாроЬроХுроЮ்роЪро░ропрой் рокோрой்ро▒ рокெропро░்роХро│ைроЪ் роЪொро▓்ро▓ро▓ாроо்.
роЪோро┤рок்рокроЯைропிрой் ро╡ро│ро░்роЪ்роЪிропைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிроп рокро▓்ро╡ேро▒ு рокроХுродிроХро│ைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிропுроо் роЗрок்рокெропро░்роХро│ிро▓ிро░ுрои்родே роЕро▒ிропро▓ாроо். "роЖройைропாроЯ்роХро│்" роЕро▓்ро▓родு "роХுроЮ்роЪро░рооро▓்ро▓ро░்" роОрой்ро▒ுроо் роХுро▒ிрок்рокிроЯрок்рокроЯ்роЯ ропாройைрок்рокроЯைропைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிропுроо் "роХுродிро░ைроЪ் роЪேро╡роХро░்" роОрой்ро▒ு роЕро┤ைроХ்роХрок்рокроЯ்роЯ роХுродிро░ைрок்рокроЯைропைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிропுроо் роХுро▒ிрок்рокுроХро│் роХாрогрок்рокроЯுроХிрой்ро▒рой. рооро▒்ро▒ுроо் роХாро▓ாроЯ்рокроЯைропிрой் рокро▓ рокроХுродிроХро│் рокро▒்ро▒ிропுроо் роХுро▒ிрок்рокுроХро│் роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│ிрой் роХாрогрок்рокроЯுроХிрой்ро▒рой. роХைроХ்роХோро│ாро│ро░ைроХ் роХொрог்роЯ рокிро░ிро╡ு "роХைроХ்роХோро│рок் рокெро▒ுроо் рокроЯை" роОрой்ро▒ு роЕро┤ைроХ்роХрок்рокроЯ்роЯродு. роХைроХ்роХோро│ро░் роОрой்ро▒ாро▓் роиெроЪро╡ாро│ро░ைроХ் роХுро▒ிроХ்роХுроо் роЪொро▓்ро▓ாроХроХ் роХொро│்ро│роХ்роХூроЯாродு. роХைрок்рокро▓роо் рокொро░ுрои்родிроп ро╡ீро░ро░்роХро│ைроХ் роХொрог்роЯ рокроЯைрок் рокிро░ிро╡ைроХ் роХுро▒ிрок்рокродாроХ роХொро│்ро│ро╡родு рокொро░ுрод்родрооாроХропிро░ுроХ்роХுроо்.
ро╡ிро▓்ро▓ேрои்родிроп ро╡ீро░ро░்роХро│் "ро╡ிро▓்ро▓ிроХро│்" роОрой்ро▒ுроо், ро╡ாро│ேрои்родிроп ро╡ீро░ро░்роХро│் "ро╡ாро│்рокெро▒்ро▒ роХைроХ்роХோро│ро░்роХро│்" роОрой்ро▒ுроо் роХுро▒ிроХ்роХрок்рокроЯுроХிрой்ро▒ройро░். ро╡ро▓роЩ்роХை ро╡роХுрок்рокைроЪ் роЪேро░்рои்род ро╡ேро│ைроХ்роХாро░ро░் роОрой்рокோро░் рокோро░் рокроЯைропிро▓் рокெро░ுроо் роОрог்рогிроХ்роХைропிро▓் роЗро░ுрои்родройро░். роЗро▓роЩ்роХைропிро▓் рокொро▓рой்ройро▒ுро╡ாро╡ிро▓ிро░ுроХ்роХுроо் ро╡ிроЬропрокாроХு роорой்ройрой் роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯிро▓் роЗроЯроЩ்роХை ро╡ேро│ைроХ்роХாро░ро░்роХро│ைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிроп роХுро▒ிрок்рокு роХாрогрок்рокроЯுроХிро▒родு. роЗро╡்ро╡ேро│ைроХ்роХாро░ро░் роОрой்рокோро░் родேро╡ைрок்рокроЯ்роЯ рокோродு родро▒்роХாро▓ிроХрооாроХроЪ் роЪேро░்род்родுроХ் роХொро│்ро│рок்рокроЯ்роЯ(роЕрогி) рокроЯைроЪ் роЪேро╡роХро░்роХро│் роОрой்ро▒ роХро░ுрод்родு роЙро│்ро│родு роЖройாро▓் роЗродு роЪро░ிропாрой роТрой்ро▒ு роЗро▓்ро▓ை. рооாро▒ாроХ роЗро╡ро░்роХро│் роиிро░рои்родро░рооாрой роироо்рокிроХ்роХைроХ்роХுрок் рокாрод்родிро░рооாрой роЪேро╡роХро░்роХро│ாроХрок் рокрогிрокுро░ிрои்родройро░். рокெропро░ுроХ்роХேро▒்рок ро╡ேро│ை ро╡ро░ுроо்рокோродு роЗро╡ро░்роХро│் родроо் роЙропிро░ைропுроо் роХொроЯுрод்родு роЕро░роЪройைроХ் роХாрок்рокாро▒்ро▒ிройро░் роОрой்ро▒ுродாрой் роХро░ுродро╡ேрог்роЯுроо்.
рокிро▒்роХாро▓ роЗро▓роХ்роХிропроЪ் роЪாрой்ро▒ுроХро│் роЪிро▓ роЗроХ்роХро░ுрод்родுроХ்роХு ро╡ро▓ிро╡ு родро░ுроХிрой்ро▒рой. рокிро▒்роХாро▓рок் рокாрог்роЯிроп роиாроЯ்роЯிро▓் рокрогிропாро▒்ро▒ிроп "родெрой்ройро╡рой் роЖрокрод்родுродро╡ிроХро│்" роОрой்рокோро░் роЗро╡்ро╡ேро│ைроХ்роХாро░ро░ைрок் рокோрой்ро▒ро╡ро░ே. роЗро╡ро░்роХро│் роЕройைро╡ро░ுроо் роЕро░роЪро░ிрой் роЕро░ுроХிро▓ேропே роЗро░ுрои்родройро░் роОрой்ро▒ுроо், рооிроХ்роХ роЕродிроХாро░роо் рокெро▒்ро▒ிро░ுрои்родройро░் роОрой்ро▒ுроо் рооாро░்роХ்роХோрокோро▓ோ роХுро▒ிрод்родுро│்ро│ாро░். рокроЯைроХро│ுроХ்роХுро│் роЪிро▒ுродройроо் рокெро░ுродройроо் роОрой்ро▒ рокாроХுрокாроЯுроо் роЗро░ுрои்родродாроХ роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│ிро▓் роЗро░ுрои்родு родெро░ிропро╡ро░ுроХிро▒родு.

рооூрой்ро▒ு роХை роороХாроЪேройைропைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிроп ро╡ро░ро▓ாро▒்ро▒ுроХ் роХுро▒ிрок்рокு

родிро░ுроиெро▓்ро╡ேро▓ி рооாро╡роЯ்роЯрод்родைроЪ் роЪேро░்рои்род роЕроо்рокாроЪрооுрод்родிро░род்родை роЕроЯுрод்родுро│்ро│ родிро░ுро╡ாро▓ீроЪுро░род்родிро▓ிро░ுроХ்роХுроо் роЕро░ிропродொро░ு роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯு роЕроЩ்роХிро░ுрои்род рооூрой்ро▒ு роХை роороХாроЪேройை(рооூрой்ро▒ு роЕроЩ்роХроЩ்роХро│ைроХ் роХொрог்роЯ рокெро░ுроо் роЪேройை)ропைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிроп ро╡ро░ро▓ாро▒்ро▒ுроХ் роХுро▒ிрок்рокுроХ்роХро│ைрод் родро░ுроХிро▒родு. роЕроХ்роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯு рооுродро▓ாроо் роЗро░ாроЬро░ாроЬрой் роЕро▓்ро▓родு рооுродро▓ாроо் роЗро░ாроЬேрои்родிро░рой் роХாро▓род்родிро▓ோ роОро┤ுродрок்рокроЯ்роЯродாроХ роЗро░ுроХ்роХро╡ேрог்роЯுроо். роЕроХ்роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯிро▓் роХாрогрок்рокроЯுрокро╡ை.
роЗро╡ро░்роХро│் ро╡ிро╖்рогுро╡ைропைропுроо் роЪிро╡рокெро░ுрооாройைропுроо் ро╡ро┤ிрокроЯ்роЯройро░். роХрой்ройро░родேро╡ройைрод் родோро▒்роХроЯிрод்родுрод் родுро░род்родிройро░்; роХாроЩ்роХேропройை ро╡ெрой்ро▒ройро░்; роХро▓்рокாроЯроо் роОрой்ро▒ роКро░ைропுроо் роХроЯро▒்роХро░ைропிро▓ுро│்ро│ ро╡ிро┤ிроЮрод்родைропுроо் роЕро┤ிрод்родройро░். роХроЯро▓் роХроЯрои்родு роХிро┤роХ்роХே роЪெрой்ро▒ு рооாродோроЯ்роЯрод்родை роЕро┤ிрод்родройро░்; рооро▓ை роиாроЯ்роЯைроХ் роХைрок்рокро▒்ро▒ிройро░்; роЪாро▓ைропிро▓ுро│்ро│ роХроЯро▒்рокроЯைропை роЕро▒ுрод்родройро░்; ро╡ро│்ро│ாро│рой் роОрой்ро▒ роЪாро│ுроХ்роХிропро░ை рокுро▒роо்роХாроЯ்роЯி роУроЯроЪ் роЪெроп்родройро░்; ро╡ройро╡ாроЪி роироХро░ைроХ் роХைрок்рокро▒்ро▒ிройро░்; роЗроЪ்роЪாродройைроХро│ுроХ்роХாроХ роХாро│ро╣ро╕்родிропிро▓ுро│்ро│ родрооிро┤்рок் рокுро▓ро╡ро░்роХро│ாро▓் рокுроХро┤்рои்родு рокாроЯрок் рокெро▒்ро▒ройро░்; рооேро▓ுроо், роХுроЪ்роЪி рооро▓ைропிро▓ுро│்ро│ роХோроЯ்роЯைропை роЕро┤ிрод்родு роЙроЪ்роЪрои்родி роироХро░ைрок் рокிроЯிрод்родройро░். родроЩ்роХро│ை роОродிро░்род்род ро╡роЯுроХро░்роХро│ை рооுро▒ிропроЯிрод்родройро░். ро╡ாродாрокிроХ் роХோроЯ்роЯைропைрод் родроХро░்род்родு роЕрои்роироХро░ைропுроо் роХைрок்рокро▒்ро▒ிройро░். роЗроо்роороХா роЪேройைропிройро░் рокாрог்роЯிроп роиாроЯ்роЯிро▓் родроЩ்роХிропிро░ுрои்родройро░் роОрой்ро▒ுроо் рооூро╡роХைропாрой рокெро░ுроо் роЪேройைропைроЪ் роЪாро░்рои்род роЕроЮ்роЪாроиெроЮ்роЪроо் рокроЯைрод்род ро╡ீро░ро░்роХро│் роОрой்ро▒ுроо் роХுро▒ிроХ்роХрок்рокроЯுроХிрой்ро▒ройро░். родிро░ுро╡ாро▓ீроЪுро░роо் роХோропிро▓ைропுроо் роЕродைроЪ் роЪாро░்рои்род рокூроЪாро░ி рооро▒்ро▒ுроо் рокрогிропாроЯ்роХро│் роЙроЯ்рокроЯ роЕройைрод்родைропுроо் роЗроЪ்роЪேройைропிройро░் рокேрогிро╡рои்родройро░்.
рооேро▓ே роХுро▒ிрок்рокிроЯ்роЯுро│்ро│ ро╡ெро▒்ро▒ிроХро│் роЕройைрод்родுроо் роЗро░ாроЬро░ாроЬрой், роЕро╡ро░родு роороХрой் роЗро░ாроЬேрои்родிро░рой் роХாро▓род்родிро▓் роЕроЯைрои்род ро╡ெро▒்ро▒ிроХро│ாроХுроо். роХி.рокி. 1096ро▓் рокொро▒ிроХ்роХрок்рокроЯ்роЯ роЪேро░рой் рооாродேро╡ி(роЪேро░рооாродேро╡ி) роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯு роТрой்ро▒ிро▓் роЗроо்рооாроЪேройைропிройро░ிрой் ро╡ீро░роХ்роХройро╡ுроХро│் рокро▒்ро▒ிроХ் роХூро▒рок்рокроЯுроХிро▒родு. рооро▒்ро▒ொро░ு роХோропிро▓ைропுроо் роЕродрой் роЪொрод்родுроХ்роХро│ைропுроо் роЗроо்рооாрой்роЪேройை родрой் рокாродுроХாрок்рокிрой் роХீро┤்роХ் роХொрог்роЯுро╡рои்родродு роОрой்ро▒ு роЕрои்родроХ் роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯு роХூро▒ுроХிро▒родு.

роЪீрой роЕро▒ிроЮро░்роХро│ிрой் роЪோро┤ро░்рокроЯைропைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிроп роХுро▒ிрок்рокு

роХி.рокி. 1178-ро▓் роТро░ு роЪீрой роЕро▒ிроЮро░் роЪோро┤ роиாроЯ்роЯைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிропுроо் роЪோро┤ро░்рокроЯைропைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ிропுроо் рокிрой்ро╡ро░ுрооாро▒ு роОро┤ுродிропுро│்ро│ாро░். "роЗрои்роиாроЯு рооேро▒்роХு роиாроЯுроХро│ுроЯрой் рокோро░ிроЯ்роЯுроХ் роХொрог்роЯிро░ுроХ்роХிро▒родு. роЕро░роЪாроЩ்роХрод்родிройро░ிроЯроо் роПро▒роХ்роХுро▒ைроп роЕро▒ுрокродு роЖропிро░роо் рокோро░் ропாройைроХро│் роЙро│்ро│рой. роТро╡்ро╡ொро░ு ропாройைропுроо் 6 роЕро▓்ро▓родு 7 роЕроЯி роЙропро░роо் роЙро│்ро│родு. рокோро░ிроЯுроо்рокோродு ропாройைроХро│ிрой் рооீродு роЕроо்рокாро░ிроХро│் роЕрооைрод்родு роЕро╡ро▒்ро▒ிро▓் ро╡ீро░ро░்роХро│் роЕрооро░்рои்родு роХொрог்роЯு роиெроЯுрои்родொро▓ைро╡ிро▒்роХு роЕроо்рокு роОроп்роХிрой்ро▒ாро░்роХро│். роЕро░ுроХே роЙро│்ро│ро╡ро░்роХро│் роИроЯ்роЯிроХро│ாро▓் родாроХ்роХுроХிрой்ро▒ройро░். ро╡ெро▒்ро▒ி роЕроЯைрои்родро╡ுроЯрой் ропாройைроХро│ுроХ்роХு ро╡ிро░ுрои்родு роХொроЯுрод்родு роХௌро░ро╡ிроХ்роХிрой்ро▒ройро░். роЪிро▓ро░் роЕро╡ைроХро│ுроХ்роХு рокொрой்ройாро▓ாрой роЕроо்рокாро░ிроХро│ைрок் рокро░ிроЪாроХрод் родро░ுроХிрой்ро▒рой. роТро╡்ро╡ொро░ு роиாро│ுроо் роЕро░роЪро░் рооுрой் ропாройைроХро│் роХொрог்роЯுро╡ро░рок்рокроЯுроХிрой்ро▒рой.

роХроЯро▒்рокроЯை

роЗро░ாроЬேрои்родிро░ройிрой் рокроЯை ро╡ீро░ро░ை роПро▒்ро▒ிроЪ் роЪெрой்ро▒ "роОрог்рогிро▓роЯроЩ்роХாроХ் роХрок்рокро▓்роХро│்" роХроЯро▓் роХроЯрои்родு ро╕்ро░ீро╡ிроЬропрод்родைропுроо் роЕродைроЪ் роЪாро░்рои்род родீро╡ுроХро│ைропுроо் роХைрок்рокро▒்ро▒ிропродு роТро░ு родிроЯீро░் роЪாродройை роЕро▓்ро▓; роЪோро┤ро░்роХро│் роХроЯைрокிроЯிрод்род родிроЯ்роЯро╡роЯ்роЯрооாрой роХроЯро▒்рокроЯைроХ் роХொро│்роХைропிрой் ро╡ிро│ைро╡ேропாроХுроо். роЪроЩ்роХ роХாро▓род்родிро▓ேропே роЪோро┤ро░்роХро│் роХроЯро▓் ро╡ாрогிроХрод்родிро▒்роХு роЕроЯிроХோро▓ிройро░். рокிро▒роХு рокро▓்ро▓ро╡ро░் роХாро▓род்родிро▓் роХрок்рокро▓் рокோроХ்роХுро╡ро░род்родுрок் рокெро░ுроХிроп роХாро░рогрод்родாро▓் родெрой்ройிрои்родிропாро╡ிро▒்роХுроо், рооро▓ேропா(рооро▓ேроЪிропா, роЪிроЩ்роХрок்рокூро░்) роЗрои்родோроЪீройா рокோрой்ро▒ родீро╡ுроХро│ுроХ்роХுрооிроЯைропிро▓் ро╡ாрогிроХроХ்роХро▓ைрок் рокрог்рокாроЯ்роЯுро▒ро╡ு рооேро▓ுроо் ро╡ро│ро░்рои்родродு.
9-роо் роиூро▒்ро▒ாрог்роЯிро▓் "роорогிроХ்роХிро░ாроороо்" роОрой்ройுроо் родெрой்ройிрои்родிроп ро╡ро░்род்родроХроХ் роХுро┤ு ро╡роЩ்роХроХ்роХроЯро▓ைроХ் роХроЯрои்родு роОродிро░்роХ் роХроЯро▒்роХро░ை роУро░род்родிро▓் роЗропроЩ்роХрод் родொроЯроЩ்роХிроп роЪெроп்родிропை роЕроЩ்роХுро│்ро│ родроХுро╡ாрокா роОрой்ройுрооிроЯрод்родிро▓் роЙро│்ро│ роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯு роТрой்ро▒ு роХூро▒ுроХிро▒родு. рокрог்роЯைроп ро╡ро┤роХ்роХрок்рокроЯிропே роЪோро┤ро░்роХро│ுроо் родроЩ்роХро│் роХроЯро▓் роЖродிроХ்роХрод்родைрок் рокро░рок்рокுроо் рокрогிропிро▓் роИроЯுрокроЯ்роЯு рокро▓ ро╡ெро▒்ро▒ிроХро│ைроХ் роХрог்роЯройро░். роИро┤роо், рооாро▓род்родீро╡ு(Sri Lanka and Maldives) роЖроХிропро╡ро▒்ро▒ைроХ் роХைрок்рокро▒்ро▒ிропродு. роЪீрой ро╡ро░ро▓ாро▒்ро▒ிро▓் роХுро▒ிроХ்роХрок்рокெро▒்ро▒родு рокோро▓, роЪீрой роиாроЯ்роЯிро▒்роХு родூродுроХ்роХுро┤ுро╡ை роЕройுрок்рокிропродு. роЗро╡ைропெро▓்ро▓ாроо் роЗроо்рооுропро▒்роЪிропாро▓் роЪோро┤ро░் роХрог்роЯ ро╡ெро▒்ро▒ிроХро│ாроХுроо்.
роХாрои்родро│ூро░்роЪ் роЪாро▓ை роХро▓рооро▒ுрод்родு, роЪேро░ро░் рокроЯைропை рооுро▒ிропроЯிрод்родுрод் родெрой்ройிрои்родிропроХ் роХроЯро▓ிро▓் роЪோро┤ро░் родроЩ்роХро│் роиிроХро░ро▒்ро▒ роЖродிроХ்роХрод்родை роиிро▓ைроиாроЯ்роЯிройро░். роЪோро┤ро░் роХாро▓род்родிроп роХро▓роЩ்роХро│ிрой் роЕрооைрок்рокு роОрок்рокроЯி роЗро░ுрои்родродு роОрой்рокродைрок் рокро▒்ро▒ி роиேро░роЯிропாрой роЪாрой்ро▒ுроХро│் ропாродுроо் роХிроЯைроХ்роХро╡ிро▓்ро▓ை. роЖройாро▓் роЗродро▒்роХுроо் рокро▓ роиூро▒்ро▒ாрог்роЯுроХро│ுроХ்роХு рооுрой்ройро░ே рооூрой்ро▒ு ро╡роХைроХ் роХро▓роЩ்роХро│் роЪோро┤ роорог்роЯро▓роХ் роХро░ைропிро▓் роЙро▓ாро╡ிрой роОрой்ро▒ு "рокெро░ிрок்ро│ூро╕்" роОрой்ройுроо் роиூро▓் роХூро▒ிропுро│்ро│родைропுроо் рокிро▒роХு роЗро░ாроЬேрои்родிро░рой் рокெро░ிропродொро░ு роХрок்рокро▒்рокроЯைропைроХ் роХொрог்роЯு ро╡ெро▒்ро▒ிроЪ் роЪாродройைроХро│் рокுро░ிрои்родродைропுроо் роиோроХ்роХுроо் рокொро┤ுродு, роЪோро┤ро░் роХрок்рокро▒்рокроЯை роЪிро▒ிропродுроо் рокெро░ிропродுрооாрой рокро▓ роХொрог்роЯ роЪிро▒рои்род рокроЯைропாроХ роЕрооைроХ்роХрок் рокெро▒்ро▒ிро░ுрои்родродாроХрод் родோрой்ро▒ுроХிро▒родு.

рокோро░் ро╡ிро│ைро╡ுроХро│்

рокோро░் роОрой்рокродு роЗро░ுродро░рок்рокிро▓ுрооுро│்ро│ рокроЯை ро╡ீро░ро░்роХро│ுроХ்роХிроЯைропே роороЯ்роЯுроо் роироЯрои்род роЪрог்роЯை роОройроХ்роХро░ுродро╡ுроо், роиாроЯ்роЯிрой் роЕрой்ро▒ாроЯ ро╡ாро┤்роХ்роХைроХ்роХு роКро▒ு ро╡ிро│ைро╡ிроХ்роХро╡ிро▓்ро▓ை роОрой்ро▒ роУро░் роОрог்рогрод்родிро▒்роХுроЪ் роЪிро▒ிродுроо் роЖродாро░роо் роЗро▓்ро▓ை. роЪோро┤ро░் роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│ிро▓ிро░ுрои்родுроо் роЕро╡ро░்роХро│ுроЯрой் рокோро░ிроЯ்роЯ роЪாро│ுроХ்роХிропро░ிрой் роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│ிро▓ிро░ுрои்родுроо் роироороХ்роХு родெро░ிропро╡ро░ுро╡родு, роЕро╡ро░்роХро│் роЪெроп்род роХроЯுроо் рокோро░ிройாро▓் родுроЩ்роХрокрод்родிро░ை роиродிропிрой் роЗро░ு рокроХ்роХроЩ்роХро│ிро▓் роЗро░ுрои்род роороХ்роХро│ிроЯைропே рокро▓ родро▓ைрооுро▒ைроХ்роХுрод் родாроЩ்роХрооுроЯிропாрод родுропро░роЩ்роХро│ை роЕрок்рокோро░் роЙрог்роЯாроХ்роХிропродு. рокோро░ிроЯுроо் рокொро┤ுродு роХроЯைрокிроЯிроХ்роХро╡ேрог்роЯிроп роЪிро▓ роЙропро░்рои்род рооро░рокுроХро│ைропுроо் роХрог்рогிропрод்родைропுроо் роХூроЯ рооро░рои்родு, роЕрооைродிропாроХ ро╡ாро┤்рои்род роороХ்роХро│் рокро▓ро╡ாро▒ு родுрой்рокுро▒ுрод்родрок்рокроЯ்роЯройро░்.
роИро┤род்родிро▓ுроо் роХро░ுроиாроЯроХрок் рокроХுродிропிро▓ுроо் роХிроЯைрод்родுро│்ро│ роЪாрой்ро▒ுроХро│ை роиாроо் рооро▒ுроХ்роХро╡ோ рооро▒ைроХ்роХро╡ோ рооுроЯிропாродு. роЪாро│ுроХ்роХிропроХ் роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│் рооுродро▓ாроо் роЗро░ாроЬேрои்родிро░рой் роХோропிро▓்роХро│ை роЕро┤ிрод்родாрой் роОрой்ро▒ுроо் роХுро▒்ро▒роо் роЪாроЯ்роЯுроХிрой்ро▒рой. роЪроороп ро╡ேро▒ுрокாроЯ்роЯிройாро▓் роЗродு роЪெроп்ропрок்рокроЯ்роЯிро░ுроХ்роХро▓ாроо் роОрой்ро▒ாро▓ுроо், рокொро░ுро│ாроЪைропுроо் роТро░ு роХாро░рогрооாроХ роЗро░ுрои்родிро░ுроХ்роХро▓ாроо். роЪாро│ுроХ்роХிроп роиாроЯ்роЯிро▓் роЪெро▓்ро╡роЪ் роЪெро┤ிрок்рокுроЯрой் роЗро░ுрои்род рокро▓ роЪроорогрок் рокро│்ро│ிроХро│்(рокро╕்родிроХ்роХுроХро│்) роЖро┤்рои்род роЪிро╡рокроХ்родройாрой ро░ாроЬேрои்родிро░ройுроХ்роХு роиро▓்ро▓ ро╡ேроЯ்роЯைроХ் роХро│рооாроХ роЕрооைрои்родрой роОрой்ро▒ு родெро░ிроХிро▒родு. роЕропро▓்роиாроЯ்роЯுрок் рокроЯைропெроЯுрок்рокுроХ்роХро│ிро▓ிро░ுрои்родு роЪோро┤ро░்роХро│ுроХ்роХு роХிроЯைрод்род рокொро░ுро│்роХро│் роПро░ாро│роо். роЕро╡்ро╡ாро▒ு роХொро│்ро│ைропроЯிроХ்роХрок்рокроЯ்роЯ рокொрой்ройைропுроо் рокொро░ுро│ைропுроо் родாрой், роЕро░роЪро░்роХро│் родாройрооாроХ ро╡ாро░ிроХ்роХொроЯுрод்родройро░் роОрой்ро▒ு роЕро╡ро░்роХро│் роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│் ро╡ெро│ிрок்рокроЯைропாроХ роХூро▒ுроХிрой்ро▒рой.
рокொродுро╡ாроХ рокோро░்роХ்роХро│род்родிрой் рооூро▓роо் роХிроЯைрод்род рокொро░ுро│் роОро▓்ро▓ாроо் роЕро░роЪро░ைропே роЪாро░ுроо். роЕро╡ைроХро│ை родрой் ро╡ிро░ுрок்рокроо் рокோро▓் рокропрой்рокроЯுрод்родро▓ாроо். роЪீрок்рокுро▓ி рокாроХி роиாроЯுроХро│ிро▓் роХைрок்рокро▒்ро▒рок்рокроЯ்роЯ родொро│்ро│ாропிро░роо் роЖроЯுроХро│ை рооுродро▓ாроо் роЗро░ாроЬро░ாроЬрой் родроородு 6-роо் роЖроЯ்роЪி роЖрог்роЯிро▓் роХாроЮ்роЪிрокுро░род்родிро▓் роЗро░ுроХ்роХுроо் родுро░்роХ்роХைроХ் роХோропிро▓ுроХ்роХுрод் родாройрооாроХ роЕро│ிрод்родுрод் родроородு рокெропро░ிро▓் рокрод்родு роирои்родா ро╡ிро│роХ்роХேро▒்ро▒ி ро╡ைроХ்роХрок் рокрогிрод்родாро░் роОрой்ро▒ு роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯுроХ்роХро│் роХூро▒ுроХிрой்ро▒рой. рооро▒்ро▒ொро░ு роХро▓்ро╡ெроЯ்роЯிро▓் рооро▓ைроиாроЯ்роЯைроХ் роХைрок்рокро▒்ро▒ி, роЕроЩ்роХிро░ுрои்родு роХொрог்роЯு ро╡ро░рок்рокроЯ்роЯ рокроЯிроороЩ்роХро│ிро▓் рооро░роХродрод்родேро╡ро░் рокроЯிроороо் роТрой்ро▒ை роЕродிроХாро░் роТро░ுро╡ро░் роЕро░роЪройிроЯроо் роХேроЯ்роЯுрок் рокெро▒்ро▒ுроХ் роХொрог்роЯு роЕродைрод் родிро░ுрок்рокро┤ройроо் роОрой்ройுроо் роКро░ிро▓் роХோропிро▓் роХொро│்ро│роЪ் роЪெроп்родாро░் роОрой்ро▒ுроо் роХுро▒ிрок்рокிроЯрок்рокроЯ்роЯுро│்ро│родு.